Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Genetic determinants of aggression and impulsivity in humans

  • Human Genetics • Review
  • Published:
Journal of Applied Genetics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Human aggression/impulsivity-related traits have a complex background that is greatly influenced by genetic and non-genetic factors. The relationship between aggression and anxiety is regulated by highly conserved brain regions including amygdala, which controls neural circuits triggering defensive, aggressive, or avoidant behavioral models. The dysfunction of neural circuits responsible for emotional control was shown to represent an etiological factor of violent behavior. In addition to the amygdala, these circuits also involve the anterior cingulated cortex and regions of the prefrontal cortex. Excessive reactivity in the amygdala coupled with inadequate prefrontal regulation serves to increase the likelihood of aggressive behavior. Developmental alterations in prefrontal-subcortical circuitry as well as neuromodulatory and hormonal abnormality appear to play a role. Imbalance in testosterone/serotonin and testosterone/cortisol ratios (e.g., increased testosterone levels and reduced cortisol levels) increases the propensity toward aggression because of reduced activation of the neural circuitry of impulse control and self-regulation. Serotonin facilitates prefrontal inhibition, and thus insufficient serotonergic activity can enhance aggression. Genetic predisposition to aggression appears to be deeply affected by the polymorphic genetic variants of the serotoninergic system that influences serotonin levels in the central and peripheral nervous system, biological effects of this hormone, and rate of serotonin production, synaptic release and degradation. Among these variants, functional polymorphisms in the monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) and serotonin transporter (5-HTT) may be of particular importance due to the relationship between these polymorphic variants and anatomical changes in the limbic system of aggressive people. Furthermore, functional variants of MAOA and 5-HTT are capable of mediating the influence of environmental factors on aggression-related traits. In this review, we consider genetic determinants of human aggression, with special emphasis on genes involved in serotonin and dopamine metabolism and function.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Albaugh MD, Harder VS, Althoff RR, Rettew DC, Ehli EA, Lengyel-Nelson T, Davies GE, Ayer L, Sulman J, Stanger C, Hudziak JJ (2010) COMT Val158Met genotype as a risk factor for problem behaviors in youth. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 49:841–849

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alliey-Rodriguez N, Zhang D, Badner JA, Lahey BB, Zhang X, Dinwiddie S, Romanos B, Plenys N, Liu C, Gershon ES (2011) Genome-wide association study of personality traits in bipolar patients. Psychiatr Genet 21:190–194

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aluja A, García LF, Blanch A, Fibla J. Association of androgen receptor gene, CAG and GGN repeat length polymorphism and impulsive-disinhibited personality traits in inmates: the role of short-long haplotype. Psychiatr Genet (in press) doi:10.1097/YPG.0b013e328345465e

  • Anney RJ, Lasky-Su J, O'Dúshláine C, Kenny E, Neale BM, Mulligan A, Franke B, Zhou K, Chen W, Christiansen H, Arias-Vásquez A, Banaschewski T, Buitelaar J, Ebstein R, Miranda A, Mulas F, Oades RD, Roeyers H, Rothenberger A, Sergeant J, Sonuga-Barke E, Steinhausen H, Asherson P, Faraone SV, Gill M (2008) Conduct disorder and ADHD: evaluation of conduct problems as a categorical and quantitative trait in the international multicentre ADHD genetics study. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 147B:1369–1378

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Archer J (2006) Testosterone and human aggression: an evaluation of the challenge hypothesis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 30(3):319–345

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Åslund C, Nordquist N, Comasco E, Leppert J, Oreland L, Nilsson KW (2010) Maltreatment, MAOA, and delinquency: sex differences in gene–environment interaction in a large population-based cohort of adolescents. Behav Genet 41:262–272

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Assal F, Alarcón M, Solomon EC, Masterman D, Geschwind DH, Cummings JL (2004) Association of the serotonin transporter and receptor gene polymorphisms in neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 61:1249–1253

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baca-Garcia E, Vaquero C, Diaz-Sastre C, García-Resa E, Saiz-Ruiz J, Fernández-Piqueras J, de Leon J (2004) Lack of association between the serotonin transporter promoter gene polymorphism and impulsivity or aggressive behavior among suicide attempters and healthy volunteers. Psichiatry Res 126:99–106

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bachner-Melman R, Dina C, Zohar AH, Constantini N, Lerer E, Hoch S, Sella S, Nemanov L, Gritsenko I, Lichtenberg P, Granot R, Ebstein RP (2005) AVPR1a and SLC6A4 gene polymorphisms are associated with creative dance performance. PLoS Genet 1:e42

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baehne CG, Ehlis AC, Plichta MM, Conzelmann A, Pauli P, Jacob C, Gutknecht L, Lesch KP, Fallgatter AJ (2009) Tph2 gene variants modulate response control processes in adult ADHD patients and healthy individuals. Mol Psychiatry 14:1032–1039

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baker LA, Raine A, Liu J, Jacobson KC (2008) Differential genetic and environmental influences on reactive and proactive aggression in children. J Abnorm Child Psychol 36:1265–1278

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bassarath L (2001) Neuroimaging studies of antisocial behaviour. Can J Psychiatry 46:728–732

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beaver KM, Wright JP, DeLisi M, Walsh A, Vaughn MG, Boisvert D, Vaske J (2007) A gene x gene interaction between DRD2 and DRD4 is associated with conduct disorder and antisocial behavior in males. Behav Brain Functions 3:30

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beaver KM, Gibson CL, Jennings WG, Ward JT (2011) A gene x environment interaction between DRD2 and religiosity in the prediction of adolescent delinquent involvement in a sample of males. Biodemography Soc Biol 55:71–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beitchman JH, Baldassarra L, Mik H, De Luca V, King N, Bender D, Ehtesham S, Kennedy JL (2006) Serotonin transporter polymorphisms and persistent, pervasive childhood aggression. Am J Psychiatry 163:1103–1105

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bell R, Hobson H (1994) 5-HT1A receptor influences on rodent social and agonistic behavior: a review and empirical study. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 18:325–338

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bellivier F, Chaste P, Malafosse A (2004) Association between the TPH gene A218C polymorphism and suicidal behavior: a meta-analysis. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 124B:87–91

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bengel D, Jöhren O, Andrews AM, Heils A, Mössner R, Sanvitto GL, Saavedra JM, Lesch KP, Murphy DL (1997) Cellular localization and expression of the serotonin transporter in mouse brain. Brain Res 778:338–345

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Benton D (1988) Hypoglycemia and aggression: a review. Int J Neurosci 41:163–168

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bernhardt PC (1997) Influences of serotonin and testosterone in aggression and dominance: convergence with social psychology. Curr Direc Psychol Sci 6:44–48

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bertolino A, Rubino V, Sambataro F, Blasi G, Latorre V, Fazio L, Caforio G, Petruzzella V, Kolachana B, Hariri A, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Nardini M, Weinberger DR, Scarabino T (2006) Prefrontal-hippocampal coupling during memory processing is modulated by COMT val158met genotype. Biol Psychiatry 60:1250–1258

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bertolino A, Fazio L, Caforio G, Blasi G, Rampino A, Romano R, Di Giorgio A, Taurisano P, Papp A, Pinsonneault J, Wang D, Nardini M, Popolizio T, Sadee W (2009) Functional variants of the dopamine receptor D2 gene modulate prefronto-striatal phenotypes in schizophrenia. Brain 132:417–425

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bevilacqua L, Doly S, Kaprio J, Yuan Q, Tikkanen R, Paunio T, Zhou Z, Wedenoja J, Maroteaux L, Diaz S, Belmer A, Hodgkinson CA, Dell'osso L, Suvisaari J, Coccaro E, Rose RJ, Peltonen L, Virkkunen M, Goldman D (2010) A population-specific HTR2B stop codon predisposes to severe impulsivity. Nature 468:1061–1066

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bezdjian S, Tuvblad C, Raine A, Baker LA (2011) The genetic and environmental covariation among psychopathic personality traits, and reactive and proactive aggression in childhood. Child Dev 82:1267–1281

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Birger M, Swartz M, Cohen D, Alesh Y, Grishpan C, Kotelr M (2003) Aggression: the testosterone-serotonin link. Isr Med Assoc J 5:653–658

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bitar MS, Ota M, Linnoila M, Shapiro BH (1991) Modification of gonadectomy-induced increases in brain monoamine metabolism by steroid hormones in male and female rats. Psychoneuroendocrinology 16547–557

  • Blair RJR, Peschardt KS, Budhani S, Mitchell DGV, Pine DS (2006) The development of psychopathy. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 47:262–275

    Google Scholar 

  • Bonson KR, Johnson RG, Fiorella D, Rabin RA, Winter JC (1994) Serotonergic control of androgen-induced dominance. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 49:313–322

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Book AS, Starzyk KB, Quinsey VL (2001) The relationship between testosterone and aggression: a meta-analysis. Aggress Violent Behav 6:579–599

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Booth A, Osgood D (1993) The influence of testosterone on deviance in adulthood. Criminology 31:93–117

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Booth A, Shelley G, Mazur A, Tharp G, Kittok R (1989) Testosterone, and winning and losing in human, competition. Horm Behav 23:556–571

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brendgen M, Vitaro F, Boivin M, Dionne G, Pérusse D (2006) Examining genetic and environmental effects on reactive versus proactive aggression. Dev Psychol 42:1299–1312

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brennan PA, Hammen C, Sylvers P, Bor W, Najman J, Lind P, Montgomery G, Smith AK (2011) Interactions between the COMT Val108/158Met polymorphism and maternal prenatal smoking predict aggressive behavior outcomes. Biol Psychol 87:99–105

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brockschmidt FF, Nothen MM, Hillmer AM (2007) The two most common alleles of the coding GGN repeat in the androgen receptor gene cause differences in protein function. J Mol Endocrinol 39:1–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brody GH, Beach SRH, Philibert RA, Chen Y-F, Murry McBride V (2009) Prevention effects moderate the association of 5-HTTLPR and youth risk behavior initiation: gene × environment hypotheses tested via a randomized prevention design. Dev Psychol 8:645–661

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown GL, McGarvey EL, Shirtcliff EA, Keller A, Granger DA, Flavin K (2008) Salivary cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone, and testosterone interrelationships in healthy young males: a pilot study with implications for studies of aggressive behavior. Psychiatry Res 30(159):67–76

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brunner HG, Nelen M, BreakeWeld XO, Ropers HH, van Oost BA (1993) Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A. Science 262:578–580

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buckholtz JW, Treadway MT, Cowan RL, Woodward ND, Li R, Ansari MS, Baldwin RM, Schwartzman AN, Shelby ES, Smith CE, Kessler RM, Zald DH (2010) Dopaminergic network differences in human impulsivity. Science 329:532

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cadoret RJ, Langbehn D, Caspers K, Troughton EP, Yucuis R, Sandhu HK, Philibert R (2003) Associations of the serotonin transporter promoter polymorphism with aggressivity, attention deficit, and conduct disorder in an adoptee population. Compr Psychiatry 44:88–101

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cairns RB (1996) Aggression from a developmental perspective: genes, environments and interactions. Ciba Found Symp 194:45–56

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Callewaert L, Christiaens V, Haelens A, Verrijdt G, Verhoeven G, Claessens F (2003) Implications of a polyglutamine tract in the function of the human androgen receptor. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 306:46–52

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Caramaschi D, de Boer SF, Koolhaas JM (2007) Differential role of the 5-HT1A receptor in aggressive and non- aggressive mice: an across-strain comparison. Physiol Behav 90:590–601

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cases O, Seif I, Grimsby J, Gaspar P, Chen K, Pournin S, Muller U, Aguet M, Babinet C, Shih JC (1995) Aggressive behavior and altered amounts of brain serotonin and norepinephrine in mice lacking MAOA. Science 268:1763–1766

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Caspi A, McClay J, Moffitt TE, Mill J, Martin J, Craig IW, Taylor A, Poulton R (2002) Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science 297:851–854

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chamberlain NL, Driver ED, Miesfeld RL (1994) The length and location of CAG trinucleotide repeats in the androgen receptor N-terminal domain affect transactivation function. Nucleic Acids Res 22:3181–3186

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen TJ, Blum K, Mathews D, Fisher L, Schnautz N, Braverman ER, Schoolfield J, Downs BW, Comings DE (2005) Are dopaminergic genes involved in a predisposition to pathological aggression? Hypothesizing the importance of "super normal controls" in psychiatricgenetic research of complex behavioral disorders. Med Hypotheses 65:703–707

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chichinadze KN, Domianidze TR (2010) Matitaishvili TTs, Chichinadze NK, Lazarashvili AG. Bull Exp Biol Med 149:7–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coccaro EF, Kavoussi RJ, Trestman RL, Gabriel SM, Cooper TB, Siever LJ (1997) Serotonin function in human subjects: intercorrelations among central 5-HT indices and aggressiveness. Psychiatry Res 73:1–14

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coccaro EF, McCloskey MS, Fitzgerald DA, Phan KL (2007) Amygdala and orbitofrontal reactivity to social threat in individuals with impulsive aggression. Biol Psychiatry 62:168–178

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cologer-Clifford A, Simon NG, Lu SF, Smoluk SA (1997) Serotonin agonist-induced decreases in intermale aggression are dependent on brain region and receptor subtype. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 58:425–430

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Colzato LS, van den Wildenberg WP, Van der Does AJ, Hommel B (2010) Genetic markers of striatal dopamine predict individual differences in dysfunctional, but not functional impulsivity. Neuroscience 170:782–788

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Comings DE, Muhleman D, Johnson P, MacMurray JP (1999) Potential role of the estrogen receptor gene (ESR1) in anxiety. Mol Psychiatry 4:374–377

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Comings DE, Gade-Andavolu R, Gonzalez N, Wu S, Muhleman D, Blake H, Chiu F, Wang E, Farwell K, Darakjy S, Baker R, Dietz G, Saucier G, MacMurray JP (2000a) Multivariate analysis of associations of 42 genes in ADHD, ODD and conduct disorder. Clin Genet 58:31–40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Comings DE, Gade-Andavolu R, Gonzalez N, Wu S, Muhleman D, Blake H, Mann MB, Dietz G, Saucier G, MacMurray JP (2000b) A multivariate analysis of 59 candidate genes in personality traits: the Temperament and Character Inventory. Clin Genet 58:375–385

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Comings DE, Gade-Andavolu R, Gonzalez N, Wu S, Muhleman D, Chen C, Koh P, Farwell K, Blake H, Dietz G, MacMurray JP, Lesieur HR, Rugle LJ, Rosenthal RJ (2001) The additive effect of neurotransmitter genes in pathological gambling. Clin Genet 60:107–116

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Conner TS, Jensen KP, Tennen H, Furneaux HM, Kranzler HR, Covault J (2010) Functional polymorphisms in the serotonin 1B receptor gene (HTR1B) predict self-reported anger and hostility among young men. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 153B(1):67–78

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Correa H, De Marco L, Boson W, Nicolato R, Teixeira AL, Campo VR, Romano-Silva MA (2007) Association study of T102C 5-HT(2A) polymorphism in schizophrenic patients: diagnosis, psychopathology, and suicidal behavior. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 9:97–101

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Courtet P, Baud P, Abbar M, Boulenger JP, Castelnau D, Mouthon D, Malafosse A, Buresi C (2001) Association between violent suicidal behavior and the low activity allele of the serotonin transporter gene. Mol Psychiatry 6:338–341

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Craig IW (2007) The importance of stress and genetic variation in human aggression. Bioessays 29:227–236

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Craig SP, Boularand S, Darmon MC, Mallet J, Craig IW (1991) Localization of human tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH) to chromosome 11p15.3-p14 by in situ hybridization. Cytogenet Cell Genet 56:157–159

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dabbs JM Jr, Morris R (1990) Testosterone, social class, and antisocial behavior in a sample of 4,462 men. Psychol Sci 1:209–211

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dabbs JM Jr, Jurkovic GJ, Frady RL (1991) Salivary testosterone and cortisol among late adolescent male offenders. J Abnorm Child Psychol 19:469–478

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dalley JW, Fryer TD, Brichard L, Robinson ES, Theobald DE, Lääne K, Peña Y, Murphy ER, Shah Y, Probst K, Abakumova I, Aigbirhio FI, Richards HK, Hong Y, Baron JC, Everitt BJ, Robbins TW (2007) Nucleus accumbens D2/3 receptors predict trait impulsivity and cocaine reinforcement. Science 315:1267–1270

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dannlowski U, Ohrmann P, Konrad C, Domschke K, Bauer J, Kugel H, Hohoff C, Schöning S, Kersting A, Baune BT, Mortensen LS, Arolt V, Zwitserlood P, Deckert J, Heindel W, Suslow T (2009) Reduced amygdala-prefrontal coupling in major depression: association with MAOA genotype and illness severity. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 12:11–22

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davidge KM, Atkinson L, Douglas L, Lee V, Shapiro S, Kennedy JL, Beitchman JH (2004) Association of the serotonin transporter and 5HT1D beta receptor genes with extreme, persistent and pervasive aggressiv behaviour in children. Psychiatr Genet 14:143–146

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson RJ, Putnam KM, Larson CL (2000) Dysfunction in the neural circuitry of emotion regulation - a possible prelude to violence. Science 289:591–594

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • de Almeida RM, Ferrari PF, Parmigiani S, Miczek KA (2005) Escalated aggressive behavior: dopamine, serotonin and GABA. Eur J Pharmacol 526:51–64

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • De Jonge FH, van de Poll NE (1984) Relationships between sexual and aggressive behavior in male and female rats: effects of gonadal hormones. Prog Brain Res 61:283–302

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deckert J, Catalano M, Syagailo YV, Bosi M, Okladnova O, Di BD, Nothen MM, MaVei P, Franke P, Fritze J, Maier W, Propping P, Beckmann H, Bellodi L, Lesch KP (1999) Excess of high activity monoamine oxidase A gene promoter alleles in female patients with panic disorder. Hum Mol Genet 8:621–624

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Denney RM, Koch H, Craig IW (1999) Association between monoamine oxidase A activity in human male skin fibroblasts and genotype of the MAOA promoter-associated variable number tandem repeat. Hum Genet 105:542–551

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dolan M, Anderson IM, Deakin JF (2001) Relationship between 5-HT function and impulsivity and aggression in male offenders with personality disorders. Br J Psychiatry 178:352–359

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dreher JC, Kohn P, Kolachana B, Weinberger DR, Berman KF (2009) Variation in dopamine genes influences responsivity of the human reward system. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106:617–622

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duan J, Sanders AR, Molen JE, Martinolich L, Mowry BJ, Levisnon DF, Crowe RR, Silverman JM, Gejman PV (2003) Polymorphisms in the 5’ untranslated region of the human serotonin receptor 1B (HTR1B) gene affect gene expression. Mol Psychiatry 8:901–910

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dunning AM, Dowsett M, Healey CS, Tee L, Luben RN, Folkerd E, Novik KL, Kelemen L, Ogata S, Pharoah PD, Easton DF, Day NE, Ponder BA (2004) Polymorphisms associated with circulating sex hormone levels in postmenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst 96:936–945

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ebstein RP, Benjamin J, Belmaker RH (2000) Personality and polymorphisms of genes involved in aminergic neurotransmission. Eur J Pharmacol 410:205–214

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elias M (1981) Serum cortisol, testosterone, and testosterone-binding globulin responses to competitive fighting in human males. Aggress Behav 7:215–224

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ertugrul A, Kennedy JL, Masellis M, Basile VS, Jayathilake K, Meltzer HY (2004) No association of the T102C polymorphism of the serotonin 2A receptor gene (HTR2A) with suicidality in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 69:301–305

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fan X, Xu M, Hess EJ (2010) D2 dopamine receptor subtype-mediated hyperactivity and amphetamine responses in a model of ADHD. Neurobiol Dis 37:228–236

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson CJ (2010) Genetic contributions to antisocial personality and behavior: a meta-analytic review from an evolutionary perspective. J Soc Psychol 150:160–180

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferris CF, Melloni RH, Koppel G, Perry KW, Fuller RW, Delville Y (1997) Vasopressin/ serotonin interactions in the anterior hypothalamus control aggressive behavior in golden hamsters. J Neurosci 17:4331–4340

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flores F, Naftolin F, Ryan KJ (1973) Aromatization of androstenedione and testosterone by rhesus monkey hypothalamus and limbic system. Neuroendocrinology 11:177–182

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forbes EE, Brown SM, Kimak M, Ferrell RE, Manuck SB, Hariri AR (2009) Genetic variation in components of dopamine neurotransmission impacts ventral striatal reactivity associated with impulsivity. Mol Psychiatry 14:60–70

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Franke B, Hoogman M, Arias Vasquez A, Heister JG, Savelkoul PJ, Naber M, Scheffer H, Kiemeney LA, Kan CC, Kooij JJ, Buitelaar JK (2008) Association of the dopamine transporter (SLC6A3/DAT1) gene 9–6 haplotype with adult ADHD. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 147B:1576–1579

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Franke B, Vasquez AA, Johansson S, Hoogman M, Romanos J, Boreatti-Hümmer A, Heine M, Jacob CP, Lesch KP, Casas M, Ribasés M, Bosch R, Sánchez-Mora C, Gómez-Barros N, Fernàndez-Castillo N, Bayés M, Halmøy A, Halleland H, Landaas ET, Fasmer OB, Knappskog PM, Heister AJ, Kiemeney LA, Kooij JJ, Boonstra AM, Kan CC, Asherson P, Faraone SV, Buitelaar JK, Haavik J, Cormand B, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Reif A (2010) Multicenter analysis of the SLC6A3/DAT1 VNTR haplotype in persistent ADHD suggests differential involvement of the gene in childhood and persistent ADHD. Neuropsychopharmacology 35:656–664

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Furmark T, Appel L, Henningsson S, Ahs F, Faria V, Linnman C, Pissiota A, Frans O, Bani M, Bettica P, Pich EM, Jacobsson E, Wahlstedt K, Oreland L, Långström B, Eriksson E, Fredrikson M (2008) A link between serotonin-related gene polymorphisms, amygdala activity, and placebo-induced relief from social anxiety. J Neurosci 28:13066–13074

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • George DT, Umau JC, Philips MJ, Emmela D, Ragan PW, Shoaf SE, Rawlings RR (2001) Serotonin, testosterone and alcohol in the etiology of domestic violence. Psychiatr Res 104:27–37

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • George DT, Rawlings RR, Williams WA, Phillips MJ, Fong G, Kerich M, Momenan R, Umhau JC, Hommer D (2004) A select group of perpetrators of domestic violence: evidence of decreased metabolism in the right hypothalamus and reduced relationships between cortical/subcortical brain structures in position emission tomography. Psychiatry Res 130:11–25

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gerra G, Garofano L, Castaldini L, Rovetto F, Zaimovic A, Moi G, Bussandri M, Branchi B, Brambilla F, Friso G, Donnini C (2005) Serotonin transporter promoter polymorphism genotype is associated with temperament, personality traits and illegal drugs use among adolescents. J Neural Transm 112:1397–1410

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gizer IR, Ficks C, Waldman ID (2009) Candidate gene studies of ADHD: a meta-analytic review. Hum Genet 126:51–90

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gogos JA, Morgan M, Luine V, Santha M, Ogawa S, Pfaff D, Karayiorgou M (1998) Catechol-O- methyltransferase-deficient mice exhibit sexually dimorphic changes in catecholamine levels and behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95:9991–9916

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gonda X, Fountoulakis KN, Juhasz G, Rihmer Z, Lazary J, Laszik A, Akiskal HS, Bagdy G (2009) Association of the s allele of the 5-HTTLPR with neuroticism-related traits and temperaments in a psychiatrically healthy population. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 259:106–113

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg BD, Tolliver TJ, Huang SJ, Li Q, Bengel D, Murphy DL (1999) Genetic variation in the serotonin transporter promoter region affects serotonin uptake in human blood platelets. Am J Med Genet 88:83–87

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guo G, Roettger ME, Shih JC (2007) Contributions of the DAT1 and DRD2 genes to serious and violent delinquency among adolescents and young adults. Hum Genet 121:125–136

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guo G, Ou X-M, Roettger M, Shih JC (2008) The VNTR 2 repeat in MAOA and delinquent behavior in adolescence and young adulthood: associations and MAOA promoter activity. Eur J Hum Genet 16:626–634

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gutknecht L, Kriegebaum C, Waider J, Schmitt A, Lesch K-P (2009) Spatio-temporal expression of tryptophan hydroxylase isoforms in murine and human brain: convergent data from Tph2 knockout mice. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 19:266–282

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ha TM, Cho DM, Park SW, Joo MJ, Lee BJ, Kong BG, Kim JM, Yoon JS, Kim YH (2005) Evaluating associations between 5-HTTLPR polymorphism and Alzheimer's disease for Korean patients. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 20:31–34

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haberstick BC, Smolen A, Hewitt JK (2006) Family-based association test of the 5HTTLPR and aggressive behavior in a general population sample of children. Biol Psychiatry 59:836–843

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Han DH, Park DB, Na C, Kee BS, Lee YS (2004) Association of aggressive behavior in Korean male schizophrenic patients with polymorphisms in the serotonin transporter promoter and catecholamine-O-methyltransferase genes. Psychiatry Res 129:29–37

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hanna GL, Himle JA, Curtis GC, Koram DQ, Veenstra-VanderWeele J, Leventhal BL, Cook EH Jr (1998) Serotonin transporter and seasonal variation in blood serotonin in families with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 18:102–111

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hannon J, Hoyer D (2008) Molecular biology of 5-HT receptors. Behav Brain Res 195:198–213

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hasegawa Y, Higuchi S, Matsushita S, Miyaoka H (2002) Association of a polymorphism of the serotonin 1B receptor gene and alcohol dependence with inactive aldehyde dehydrogenase-2. J Neural Transm 109:513–521

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heinrichs M, von Dawans B, Domes G (2009) Oxytocin, vasopressin, and human social behavior. Front Neuroendocrinol 30:548–557

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heinz A, Braus DF, Smolka MN, Wrase J, Puls I, Hermann D, Klein S, Grüsser SM, Flor H, Schumann G, Mann K, Büchel C (2005) Amygdala-prefrontal coupling depends on a genetic variation of the serotonin transporter. Nat Neurosci 8:20–21

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hermans EJ, Ramsey NF, van Honk J (2008) Exogenous testosterone enhances responsiveness to social threat in the neural circuitry of social aggression in humans. Biol Psychiatry 63:263–270

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Herrington DM, Howard TD, Brosnihan KB, McDonnell DP, Li X, Hawkins GA, Reboussin DM, Xu J, Zheng SL, Meyers DA, Bleecker ER (2002) Common estrogen receptor polymorphism augments effects of hormone replacement therapy on E-selectin but not C-reactive protein. Circulation 105:1879–1882

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hess C, Reif A, Strobel A, Boreatti-Hümmer A, Heine M, Lesch KP, Jacob CP (2009) A functional dopamine-beta- hydroxylase gene promoter polymorphism is associated with impulsive personality styles, but not with affective disorders. J Neural Transm 116:121–130

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Higley JD, Mehlman PT (1996) CSF testosterone and 5-HIAA correlate with different types of aggressive behaviors. Biol Psychiatry 40:1067–1082

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Higley JD, Mehlman PT (1997) Comment on the article: CSF testosterone and 5-HIAA correlate with different types of aggressive behaviors. Biol Psychiatry 42:305–307

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hohmann S, Becker K, Fellinger J, Banaschewski T, Schmidt MH, Esser G, Laucht M (2009) Evidence for epistasis between the 5-HTTLPR and the dopamine D4 receptor polymorphisms in externalizing behavior among 15-year-olds. J Neural Transm 116:1621–1629

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hong CJ, Pan GM, Tsai SJ (2004) Association study of onset age, attempted suicide, aggressive behavior, and schizophrenia with a serotonin 1B receptor (A-161 T) genetic polymorphism. Neuropsychobiology 49:1–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoyer D, Clarke DE, Fozard JR, Hartig PR, Martin GR, Mylecharane EJ, Saxena PR, Humphrey PP (1994) International Union of Pharmacology classification of receptors for 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin). Pharmacol Rev 46:157–203

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huang YY, Battistuzzi C, Oquendo MA, Harkavy-Friedman J, Greenhill L, Zalsman G, Brodsky B, Arango V, Brent DA, Mann JJ (2004) Human 5-HT1A receptor C(−1019)G polymorphism and psychopathology. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 7:441–451

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Inoue H, Yamasue H, Tochigi M, Takei K, Suga M, Abe O, Yamada H, Rogers MA, Aoki S, Sasaki T, Kasai K (2010) Effect of tryptophan hydroxylase-2 gene variants on amygdalar and hippocampal volumes. Brain Res 1331:51–57

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Israel S, Lerer E, Shalev I, Uzefovsky F, Reibold M, Bachner-Melman R, Granot R, Bornstein G, Knafo A, Yirmiya N, Ebstein RP (2008) Molecular genetic studies of the arginine vasopressin 1a receptor (AVPR1a) and the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) in human behaviour: from autism to altruism with some notes in between. Prog Brain Res 170:435–449

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen KP, Covault J, Conner TS, Tennen H, Kranzler HR, Furneaux HM (2009) A common polymorphism in serotonin receptor 1B mRNA moderates regulation by miR-96 and associates with aggressive human behaviors. Mol Psychiatry 14:381–389

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jin H, Oksenberg D, Ashkenazi A, Peroutka SJ, Duncan AM, Rozmahel R, Yang Y, Mengod G, Palacios JM, O'Dowd BF (1992) Characterization of the human 5-hydroxytryptamine1B receptor. J Biol Chem 267:5735–5738

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jönsson EG, von Gertten C, Gustavsson JP, Yuan QP, Lindblad-Toh K, Forslund K, Rylander G, Mattila-Evenden M, Asberg M, Schalling M (2001) Androgen receptor trinucleotide repeat polymorphism and personality traits. Psychiatr Genet 11:19–23

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kalin NH (1999) Primate models to understand human aggression. J Clin Psychiatry 60(Suppl 15):29–32

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kamata M, Suzuki A, Matsumoto Y, Shibuya N, Togashi H, Goto K, Otani K (2009) Association study between the -1021C/T polymorphism of the dopamine-beta-hydroxylase gene promoter and personality traits in healthy subjects. Neurosci Lett 462:54–57

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kiehl KA, Smith AM, Hare RD, Mendrek A, Forster BB, Bring J, Liddle PF (2001) Limbic abnormalities in affective processing by criminal psychopaths as revealed by functional magnetic resonance imaging. Biol Psychiatry 50:677–684

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim-Cohen J, Caspi A, Taylor A, Williams B, Newcombe R, Craig IW, Moffitt TE (2006) MAOA, maltreatment, and gene-environment interaction predicting children's mental health: new evidence and a meta-analysis. Mol Psychiatry 11:903–913

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kinnally EL, Karere GM, Lyons LA, Mendoza SP, Mason WA, Capitanio JP (2010a) Serotonin pathway gene-gene and gene-environment interactions influence behavioral stress response in infant rhesus macaques. Dev Psychopathol 22:35–44

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kinnally EL, Tarara ER, Mason WA, Mendoza SP, Abel K, Lyons LA, Capitanio JP (2010b) Serotonin transporter expression is predicted by early life stress and is associated with disinhibited behavior in infant rhesus macaques. Genes Brain Behav 9:45–52

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kobilka BK, Frielle T, Collins S, Yang-Feng T, Kobilka TS, Francke U, Lefkowitz RJ, Caron MG (1987) An intronless gene encoding a potential member of the family of receptors coupled to guanine nucleotide regulatory proteins. Nature 329:75–79

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koller G, Bondy B, Preuss UW, Zill P, Soyka M (2006) The C(−1019)G 5-HT1A promoter polymorphism and personality traits: no evidence for significant association in alcoholic patients. Behav Brain Funct 2:7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kudielka BM, Wüst S (2010) Human models in acute and chronic stress: assessing determinants of individual hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and reactivity. Stress 13:1–14

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kulikova MA, Maluchenko NV, Timofeeva MA, Shlepzova VA, Schegolkova JV, Sysoeva OV, Ivanitsky AM, Tonevitsky AG (2008) Effect of functional catechol-O-methyltransferase Val158Met polymorphism on physical aggression. Bull Exp Biol Med 145:62–64

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • La Spada AR, Wilson EM, Lubahn DB, Harding AE, Fischbeck KH (1991) Androgen receptor gene mutations in X- linked spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy. Nature 352:77–79

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lachman HM, Nolan KA, Mohr P, Saito T, Volavka J (1998) Association between catechol O-methyltransferase genotype and violence in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. Am J Psychiatry 155:835–837

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lai BM, Cheung CL, Luk KD, Kung AW (2008) Estrogen receptor alpha CA dinucleotide repeat polymorphism is associated with rate of bone loss in perimenopausal women and bone mineral density and risk of osteoporotic fractures in postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int 19:571–579

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lam LCW, Tang NLS, Ma SL, Zhang WM, Chiu HFK (2004) 5-HT(2A)T102C receptor polymorphism and neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer’s disease. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 19:523–526

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lamouroux A, Vigny A, Faucon Biguet N, Darmon MC, Franck R, Henry JP, Mallet J (1987) The primary structure of human dopamine-beta-hydroxylase: insights into the relationship between the soluble and the membrane-bound forms of the enzyme. EMBO J 6:3931–3937

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lappalainen J, Long JC, Eggert M, Ozaki N, Robin RW, Brown GL, Naukkarinen H, Virkkunen M, Linnoila M, Goldman D (1998) Linkage of antisocial alcoholism to the serotonin 5-HT1B receptor gene in 2 populations. Arch Gen Psychiatry 55:989–994

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lasky-Su J, Neale BM, Franke B, Anney RJ, Zhou K, Maller JB, Vasquez AA, Chen W, Asherson P, Buitelaar J, Banaschewski T, Ebstein R, Gill M, Miranda A, Mulas F, Oades RD, Roeyers H, Rothenberger A, Sergeant J, Sonuga-Barke E, Steinhausen HC, Taylor E, Daly M, Laird N, Lange C, Faraone SV (2008) Genome-wide association scan of quantitative traits for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder identifies novel associations and confirms candidate gene associations. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 147B:1345–1354

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee BT, Ham BJ (2008) Monoamine oxidase A-uVNTR genotype affects limbic brain activity in response to affective facial stimuli. Neuroreport 19:515–519

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee B, London ED, Poldrack RA, Farahi J, Nacca A, Monterosso JR, Mumford JA, Bokarius AV, Dahlbom M, Mukherjee J, Bilder RM, Brody AL, Mandelkern MA (2009) Striatal dopamine d2/d3 receptor availability is reduced in methamphetamine dependence and is linked to impulsivity. J Neurosci 29:14734–14740

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lemonde S, Turecki G, Bakish D, Du L, Hrdina PD, Bown CD, Sequeira A, Kushwaha N, Morris SJ, Basak A, Ou XM, Albert PR (2003) Impaired repression at a 5-hydroxytryptamine 1A receptor gene polymorphism associated with major depression and suicide. J Neurosci 23:8788–8799

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lesch KP (2005) Serotonergic gene inactivation in mice: models for anxiety and aggression? Novartis Found Symp 268:111–140

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lesch KP, Bengel D, Heils A, Sabol SZ, Greenberg BD, Petri S, Benjamin J, Müller CR, Hamer DH, Murphy DL (1996) Association of anxiety-related traits with a polymorphism in the serotonin transporter gene regulatory region. Science 274:1527–1531

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li D, He L (2006) Further clarification of the contribution of the tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH) gene to suicidal behavior using systematic allelic and genotypic meta-analyses. Hum Genet 119:233–240

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Linnoila VM, Virkkunen M (1992) Aggression, suicidality, and serotonin. J Clin Psychiatry 53(Suppl):46–51

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Loehlin JC, Medland SE, Montgomery GW, Martin NG (2005) Eysenck’s psychoticism and the X-linked androgen receptor gene CAG polymorphisms in additional Australina samples. Pers Individ Dif 39:661–667

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loney BR, Butler MA, Lima EN, Counts CA, Eckel LA (2006) The relation between salivary cortisol, callous- unemotional traits, and conduct problems in an adolescent non-referred sample. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 47:30–36

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lopez de Lara C, Brezo J, Rouleau G, Lesage A, Dumont M, Alda M, Benkelfat C, Turecki G (2007) Effect of tryptophan hydroxylase-2 gene variants on suicide risk in major depression. Biol Psychiatry 62:72–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lubahn DB, Joseph DR, Sullivan PM, Willard HF, French FS, Wilson EM (1988) Cloning of human androgen receptor complementary DNA and localization to the X chromosome. Science 240:327–330

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lundin KB, Giwercman A, Dizeyi N, Giwercman YL (2007) Functional in vitro characterization of the androgen receptor GGN polymorphism. Mol Cell Endocrinol 264:184–187

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Manuck SB, Flory JD, Ferrell RE, Dent KM, Mann JJ, Muldoon MF (1999) Aggression and anger-related traits associated with a polymorphism of the tryptophan hydroxylase gene. Biol Psychiatry 45:603–614

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marino MD, Bourdélat-Parks BN, Cameron Liles L, Weinshenker D (2005) Genetic reduction of noradrenergic function alters social memory and reduces aggression in mice. Behav Brain Res 161:197–203

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martinez-Conde E, Leret ML, Diaz S (1985) The influence of testosterone in the brain of the male rat on levels of serotonin and hydroxyindole-acetic acid (5-HIAA). Comp Biochem Physiol 80:411–414

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McDermott R, Tingley D, Cowden J, Frazzetto G, Johnson DD (2009) Monoamine oxidase A gene (MAOA) predicts behavioral aggression following provocation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106:2118–2123

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer-Lindenberg A, Buckholtz JW, Kolachana B, Hariri AR, Pezawas L, Blasi G, Wabnitz A, Honea R, Verchinski B, Callicott JH, Egan M, Mattay V, Weinberger DR (2006) Neural mechanisms of genetic risk for impulsivity and violence in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:6269–6274

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Missale C, Nash SR, Robinson SW, Jaber M, Caron MG (1998) Dopamine receptors: from structure to function. Physiol Rev 78:189–225

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt TE, Caspi A, Rutter M, Silva PA (2001) Sex differences in antisocial behaviour: conduct disorder, delinquency and violence in the Dunedin Longitudinal Study. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Mouri K, Hishimoto A, Fukutake M, Shiroiwa K, Asano M, Nagasaki Y, Ueno Y, Shirakawa O, Nishiguchi N, Maeda K (2009) TPH2 is not a susceptibility gene for suicide in Japanese population. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 33:1546–1550

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Muráni E, Ponsuksili S, D'Eath RB, Turner SP, Kurt E, Evans G, Thölking L, Klont R, Foury A, Mormède P, Wimmers K (2010) Association of HPA axis-related genetic variation with stress reactivity and aggressive behaviour in pigs. BMC Genet 11:74

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naoess O (1976) Characterization of the androgen receptors in the hypothalamus, preoptic area and brain cortex of the rat. Steroids 17:167–185

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • New AS, Gelernter J, Goodman M, Mitropoulou V, Koenigsberg H, Silverman J, Siever LJ (2001) Suicide, impulsive aggression, and HTR1B genotype. Biol Psychiatry 50:62–65

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nielsen SD, Storgaard H, Moesgaard F, Gluud C (1994) Prevalence of alcohol-problems among adult somatic inpatients of a Copenhagen hospital. Alcohol Alcohol 29:583–590

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nilsson S, Makela S, Treuter E, Tujague M, Thomsen J, Andersson G, Enmark E, Pettersson K, Warner M, Gustafsson JA (2001) Mechanisms of estrogen action. Physiol Rev 81:1535–1565

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nishiguchi N, Shirakawa O, Ono H, Nishimura A, Nushida H, Ueno Y, Maeda K (2001) Brief research communication — no evidence of an association between 5HT1B receptor gene polymorphism and suicide victims in a Japanese population. Am J Med Genet 105:343–345

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nobile M, Rusconi M, Bellina M, Marino C, Giorda R, Carlet O, Vanzin L, Molteni M, Battaglia M (2010) COMT Val158Met polymorphism and socioeconomic status interact to predict attention deficit/hyperactivity problems in children aged 10–14. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 19:549–557

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nolan KA, Volavka J, Lachman HM, Saito T (2000) An association between a polymorphism of the tryptophan hydroxylase gene and aggression in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. Psychiatr Genet 10:109–115

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nomura M, Nomura Y (2006) Psychological, neuroimaging, and biochemical studies on functional association between impulsive behavior and the 5-HT2A receptor gene polymorphism in humans. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1086:134–143

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nomura M, Kusumi I, Kaneko M, Masui T, Daiguji M, Ueno T, Koyama T, Nomura Y (2006) Involvement of a polymorphism in the 5-HT2A receptor gene in impulsive behavior. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 187:30–35

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nordquist N, Oreland L (2010) Serotonin, genetic variability, behavior, and psychiatric disorders – a review. Ups J Med Sci 115:2–10

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olivier B, van Oorschot (2005) 5-HT1B receptors and aggression: a review. Eur J Pharmacol 526:207–217

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ou XM, Chen K, Shih JC (2006) Glucocorticoid and androgen activation of monoamine oxidase A is regulated differently by R1 and Sp1. J Biol Chem 281:21512–21525

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pajer K, Tabbah R, Gardner W, Rubin RT, Czambel RK, Wang Y (2006) Adrenal androgen and gonadal hormone levels in adolescent girls with conduct disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 31:1245–1256

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Parmigiani S, Dadomo H, Bartolomucci A, Brain PF, Carbucicchio A, Costantino C, Ferrari PF, Palanza P, Volpi R (2009) Personality traits and endocrine response as possible asymmetry factors of agonistic outcome in karate athletes. Aggress Behav 35:324–333

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Patkar AA, Berrettini WH, Hoehe M, Thornton CC, Gottheil E, Hill K, Weinstein SP (2002) Serotonin transporter polymorphisms and measures of impulsivity, aggression, and sensation seeking among African-American cocaine-dependent individuals. Psychiatry Res 110:103–115

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Perez-Rodriguez MM, Weinstein S, New AS, Bevilacqua L, Yuan Q, Zhou Z, Hodgkinson C, Goodman M, Koenigsberg HW, Goldman D, Siever LJ (2010) Tryptophan-hydroxylase 2 haplotype association with borderline personality disorder and aggression in a sample of patients with personality disorders and healthy controls. J Psychiatr Res 44:1075–1081

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Philibert RA, Wernett P, Plume J, Packer H, Brody GH, Beach SR (2011) Gene environment interactions with a novel variable Monoamine Oxidase A transcriptional enhancer are associated with antisocial personality disorder. Biol Psychol 36:366–371

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ponglikitmongkol M, Green S, Chambon P (1988) Genomic organization of the human oestrogen receptor gene. EMBO J 7:3385–3388

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Popma A, Doreleijers TA, Jansen LMC, Van Goozen SHM, van Engeland H, Vermeiren R (2007) The diurnal cortisol cycle in delinquent male adolescents and normal controls. Neuropsychopharmacology 32:1622–1628

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Preuss UW, Koller G, Bondy B, Bahlmann M, Soyka M (2001) Impulsive traits and 5-HT2A receptor promoter polymorphism in alcohol dependents: possible association but no influence of personality disorders. Neuropsychobiology 43:186–191

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Prichard Z, Jorm AF, Prior M, Sanson A, Smart D, Zhang Y, Huttley G, Easteal S (2002) Association of polymorphisms of the estrogen receptor gene with anxiety-related traits in children and adolescents: a longitudinal study. Am J Med Genet 114:169–176

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prichard ZM, Jorm AF, Mackinnon A, Easteal S (2007) Association analysis of 15 polymorphisms within 10 candidate genes for antisocial behavioural traits. Psychiatr Genet 17:299–303

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prichard Z, Mackinnon A, Jorm AF, Easteal S (2008) No evidence for interaction between MAOA and childhood adversity for antisocial behavior. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 147B:228–232

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pritchard AL, Pritchard CW, Bentham P, Lendon CL (2007) Role of serotonin transporter polymorphisms in the behavioural and psychological symptoms in probable Alzheimer disease patients. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 24:201–206

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rajender S, Pandu G, Sharma JD, Gandhi KPC, Singh L, Thangaraj K (2008) Reduced CAG repeats length in androgen receptor gene is associated with violent criminal behavior. Int J Legal Med 122:367–372

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ramamoorthy S, Bauman AL, Moore KR, Han H, Yang-Feng T, Chang AS, Ganapathy V, Blakely RD (1993) Antidepressant- and cocaine-sensitive human serotonin transporter: molecular cloning, expression, and chromosomal localization. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90:2542–2546

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rand MR, Robinson JE (2011) Criminal Victimization in the United States, 2008 - Statistical Tables. Report of the Bureau of Justice Statistics No. NCJ-231173. Available at: http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=2218.

  • Räsänen P, Hakko H, Visuri S, Paanila J, Kapanen P, Suomela T, Tiihonen J (1999) Serum testosterone levels, mental disorders and criminal behaviour. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1:348–352

    Google Scholar 

  • Ressler KJ, Nemeroff CB (2000) Role of serotonergic and noradrenergic systems in the pathophysiology of depression and anxiety disorders. Depress Anxiety 12(Suppl 1):2–19

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Retz W, Retz-Junginger P, Supprian T, Thome J, Rösler M (2004) Association of serotonin transporter promoter gene polymorphism with violence: relation with personality disorders, impulsivity, and childhood ADHD psychopathology. Behav Sci Law 22:415–425

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reuter M, Esslinger C, Montag C, Lis S, Gallhofer B, Kirsch P (2008) A functional variant of the tryptophan hydroxylase 2 gene impacts working memory: a genetic imaging study. Biol Psychol 79:111–117

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rhee SH, Waldman ID (2002) Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior: a meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies. Psychol Bull 128:490–529

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson MD, Wilkowski BN (2010) Personality processes in anger and reactive aggression: an introduction. J Pers 78:1–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Rondou P, Haegeman G, Van Craenenbroeck K (2010) The dopamine D4 receptor: biochemical and signalling properties. Cell Mol Life Sci 67:1971–1986

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rowe R, Maughan B, Worthman CM, Costello EJ, Angold A (2004) Testosterone, antisocial behavior, and social dominance in boys: pubertal development and biosocial interaction. Biol Psychiatry 55:546–552

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rujescu D, Giegling I, Bondy B, Gietl A, Zill P, Möller HJ (2002) Association of anger-related traits with SNPs in the TPH gene. Mol Psychiatry 7:1023–1029

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rujescu D, Giegling I, Gietl A, Hartmann AM, Möller HJ (2003a) A functional single nucleotide polymorphism (V158M) in the COMT gene is associated with aggressive personality traits. Biol Psychiatry 54:34–39

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rujescu D, Giegling I, Sato T, Moller HJ (2003b) Lack of association between serotonin 5-HT1B receptor gene polymorphism and suicidal behavior. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 116B:69–71

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sabol SZ, Hu S, Hamer D (1998) A functional polymorphism in the monoamine oxidase A gene promoter. Hum Genet 103:273–279

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sakai JT, Young SE, Stallings MC, Timberlake D, Smolen A, Stetler GL, Crowley TJ (2006) Case-control and within-family tests for an association between conduct disorder and 5HTTLPR. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 141B:825–832

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sakowski SA, Geddes TJ, Thomas DM, Levi E, Hatfield JS, Kuhn DM (2006) Differential tissue distribution of tryptophan hydroxylase isoforms 1 and 2 as revealed with monospecific antibodies. Brain Res 1085:11–18

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Salvadora A, Suay F, Martinez-Sanchis S, Simon VM, Brain PF (1999) Correlating testosterone and fighting in male participants in judo contests. Physiol Behav 68:205–209

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sanchez-Martin E, Fano L, Ahedo J, Cardas J, Brain PF, Azpíroz A (2000) Relating testosterone levels and free play social behavior in male and female preschool children. Psychoneuroendocrinology 8:773–783

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sawiniec J, Borkowski K, Ginalska G, Lewandowska-Stanek H (2007) Association between 5-hydroxytryptamine 1A receptor gene polymorphism and suicidal behavior. Przegl Lek 64:208–211

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scaramella TJ, Brown WA (1978) Serum testosterone and aggressiveness in hockey players. Psychosom Med 40:262–265

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schaal B, Tremblay RE, Soussignan R, Susman EJ (1996) Male testosterone linked to high social dominance but low physical aggression in early adolescence. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 35:1322–1330

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scherk H, Gruber O, Menzel P, Schneider-Axmann T, Kemmer C, Usher J, Reith W, Meyer J, Falkai P (2009) 5-HTTLPR genotype influences amygdala volume. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 259:212–217

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheuch K, Lautenschlager M, Grohmann M, Stahlberg S, Kirchheiner J, Zill P, Heinz A, Walther DJ, Priller J (2007) Characterization of a functional promoter polymorphism of the human tryptophan hydroxylase 2 gene in serotonergic raphe neurons. Biol Psychiatry 62:1288–1294

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schlinger BA, Callard GV (1990) Aromatization mediates aggressive behavior in quail. Gen Compar Endocrinol 79:39–53

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schneier FR, Martinez D, Abi-Dargham A, Zea-Ponce Y, Simpson HB, Liebowitz MR, Laruelle M (2008) Striatal dopamine D(2) receptor availability in OCD with and without comorbid social anxiety disorder: preliminary findings. Depress Anxiety 25:1–7

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schneier FR, Abi-Dargham A, Martinez D, Slifstein M, Hwang DR, Liebowitz MR, Laruelle M (2009) Dopamine transporters, D2 receptors, and dopamine release in generalized social anxiety disorder. Depress Anxiety 26:411–418

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sheehan K, Lowe N, Kirley A, Mullins C, Fitzgerald M, Gill M, Hawi Z (2005) ptophan hydroxylase 2 (TPH2) gene variants associated with ADHD. Mol Psychiatry 10:944–949

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shih JC, Grimsby J, Chen K, Zhu QS (1993) Structure and promoter organization of the human monoamine oxidase A and B genes. J Psychiatry Neurosci 18:25–32

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shirtcliff EA, Granger DA, Booth A, Johnson D (2005) Low salivary cortisol levels and externalizing behavior problems in youth. Dev Psychopathol 17:167–184

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silva H, Iturra P, Solari A, Villarroel J, Jerez S, Jiménez M, Galleguillos F, Bustamante ML (2010) Fluoxetine response in impulsive-aggressive behavior and serotonin transporter polymorphism in personality disorder. Psychiatr Genet 20:25–30

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smolka MN, Schumann G, Wrase J, Grüsser SM, Flor H, Mann K, Braus DF, Goldman D, Büchel C, Heinz A (2005) Catechol-O-methyltransferase val158met genotype affects processing of emotional stimuli in the amygdala and prefrontal cortex. J Neurosci 25:836–842

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Soyka M, Preuss UW, Koller G, Zill P, Bondy B (2004) Association of 5-HT1B receptor gene and antisocial behavior in alcoholism. J Neural Transm 111:101–109

    Google Scholar 

  • Stefulj J, Buttner A, Skavic J, Zill P, Balija M, Eisenmenger W, Bondy B, Jernej B (2004) Serotonin 1B (5HT-1B) receptor polymorphism (G861C) in suicide victims: association studies in German and Slavic population. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 127B:48–50

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Strange PG (1993) Dopamine receptors: structure and function. Prog Brain Res 99:167–179

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strobel A, Gutknecht L, Rothe C, Reif A, Mössner R, Zeng Y, Brocke B, Lesch KP (2003) Allelic variation in 5-HT1A receptor expression is associated with anxiety- and depression-related personality traits. J Neural Transm 110:1445–1453

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strous RD, Bark N, Parsia SS, Volavka J, Lachman HM (1997) Analysis of a functional catechol-O- methyltransferase gene polymorphism in schizophrenia: evidence for association with aggressive and antisocial behavior. Psychiatry Res 69:71–77

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strous RD, Ritsner MS, Adler S, Ratner Y, Maayan R, Kotler M, Lachman H, Weizman A (2009) Improvement of aggressive behavior and quality of life impairment following S-adenosyl-methionine (SAM-e) augmentation in schizophrenia. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 19:14–22

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sukonick DL, Pollock BG, Sweet RA, Mulsant BH, Rosen J, Klunk WE, Kastango KB, DeKosky ST, Ferrell RE (2001) The 5-HTTPR*S/*L polymorphism and aggressive behavior in Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 58:1425–1428

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sumner BE, Fink G (1998) Testosterone as well as estrogen increases serotonin2A receptor mRNA and binding site densities in the male rat brain. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 59:205–214

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sweet RA, Pollock BG, Sukonick DL, Mulsant BH, Rosen J, Klunk WE, Kastango KB, DeKosky ST, Ferrell RE (2001) The 5-HTTPR polymorphism confers liability to a combined phenotype of psychotic and aggressive behavior in Alzheimer disease. Int Psychogeriatr 13:401–419

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sysoeva OV, Maluchenko NV, Timofeeva MA, Portnova GV, Kulikova MA, Tonevitsky AG, Ivanitsky AM (2009) Aggression and 5HTT polymorphism in females: study of synchronized swimming and control groups. Int J Psychophysiol 72:173–178

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tang Y, Anderson GM, Zabetian CP, Köhnke MD, Cubells JF (2005) Haplotype-controlled analysis of the association of a non-synonymous single nucleotide polymorphism at DBH (+ 1603 C → T) with plasma dopamine beta-hydroxylase activity. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 139B:88–90

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tang Y, Buxbaum SG, Waldman I, Anderson GM, Zabetian CP, Köhnke MD, Cubells JF (2006) A single nucleotide polymorphism at DBH, possibly associated with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder, associates with lower plasma dopamine beta-hydroxylase activity and is in linkage disequilibrium with two putative functional single nucleotide polymorphisms. Biol Psychiatry 60:1034–1038

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tansey KE, Hill MJ, Cochrane LE, Gill M, Anney RJ, Gallagher L (2011) Functionality of promoter microsatellites of arginine vasopressin receptor 1A (AVPR1A): implications for autism. Mol Autism 2:3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Terburg D, Morgan B, van Honk J (2009) The testosterone-cortisol ratio: A hormonal marker for proneness to social aggression. Int J Law Psychiatry 32:216–223

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thomason ME, Dougherty RF, Colich NL, Perry LM, Rykhlevskaia EI, Louro HM, Hallmayer JF, Waugh CE, Bammer R, Glover GH, Gotlib IH (2010) COMT genotype affects prefrontal white matter pathways in children and adolescents. Neuroimage 53:926–934

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tiemeier H, Schuit SC, den Heijer T, van Meurs JB, van Tuijl HR, Hofman A, Breteler MM, Pols HA, Uitterlinden AG (2005) Estrogen receptor alpha gene polymorphisms and anxiety disorder in an elderly population. Mol Psychiatry 10:806–807

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trainor BC, Kyomen HH, Marler CA (2006) Estrogenic encounters: How interactions between aromatase and the environment modulate aggression. Front Neuroendocrinol 27:170–179

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tuinier S, Verhoeven WM, van Praag HM (1995) Cerebrospinal fluid 5-hydroxyindolacetic acid and aggression: a critical reappraisal of the clinical data. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 10:147–156

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Turakulov R, Jorm AF, Jacomb PA, Tan X, Easteal S (2004) Association of dopamine-beta-hydroxylase and androgen receptor gene polymorphisms with Eysenck’s P and other personality traits. Pers Individ Dif 37:191–202

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tuvblad C, Raine A, Zheng M, Baker LA (2009) Genetic and environmental stability differs in reactive and proactive aggression. Aggress Behav 35:437–452

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Bokhoven I, Van Goozen SHM, van Engeland H, Schaal B, Arseneault L, Séguin JR, Nagin DS, Vitaro F, Tremblay RE (2005) Salivary cortisol and aggression in a population-based longitudinal study of adolescent males. J Neural Transm 112:1083–1096

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • van Bokhoven I, Van Goozen SHM, van Engeland H, Schaal B, Arseneault L, Séguin JR, Assaad JM, Nagin DS, Vitaro F, Tremblay RE (2006) Salivary testosterone and aggression, delinquency, and social dominance in a population-based longitudinal study of adolescent males. Horm Behav 50:118–125

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • van Honk J, Harmon-Jones E, Morgan BE, Schutter DJ (2010) Socially explosive minds: the triple imbalance hypothesis of reactive aggression. J Pers 78:67–94

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vandenbergh DJ, Persico AM, Hawkins AL, Griffin CA, Li X, Jabs EW, Uhl GR (1992) Human dopamine transporter gene (DAT1) maps to chromosome 5p15.3 and displays a VNTR. Genomics 14(4):1104–1106

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • VanNess SH, Owens MJ, Kilts CD (2005) The variable number of tandem repeats element in DAT1 regulates in vitro dopamine transporter density. BMC Genet 6:55

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vaske J, Wright JP, Beaver KM (2011) A Dopamine gene (DRD2) distinguishes between offenders who have and have not been violently victimized. Int J Offender Ther Comp Criminol 55:251–267

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vaughn MC, DeLisi M, Beaver KM, Wright JP (2009) DAT1 and 5HTT are associated with pathological criminal behavior in a nationally representative sample of youth. Crim Justice Behav 36:1113–1324

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Veenema AH, Neumann ID (2008) Central vasopressin and oxytocin release: regulation of complex social behaviours. Prog Barin Res 170:261–276

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Videtic A, Pungercic G, Pajnic IZ, Zupanc T, Balazic J, Tomori M, Komel R (2006) Association study of seven polymorphisms in four serotonin receptor genes on suicide victims. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 141B:669–672

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Virkkunen M, Rissanen A, Naukkarinen H, Franssila-Kallunki A, Linnoila M, Tiihonen J (2007) Energy substrate metabolism among habitually violent alcoholic offenders having antisocial personality disorder. Psychiatry Res 150:287–295

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Virkkunen M, Rissanen A, Franssila-Kallunki A, Tiihonen J (2009) Low non-oxidative glucose metabolism and violent offending: an 8-year prospective follow-up study. Psychiatry Res 168:26–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Volavka J, Bilder R, Nolan K (2004) Catecholamines and aggression: the role of COMT and MAO polymorphisms. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1036:393–398

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • von der Pahlen B (2005) The role of alcohol and steroid hormones in human aggression. Vitam Horm 70:415–437

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • von der Pahlen B, Sarkola T, Seppä K, Eriksson CJP (2002) Testosterone, 5 alpha-dihydrotestosterone and cortisol in men with and without alcohol-related aggression. J Stud Alcohol 63:518–526

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagner S, Baskaya O, Anicker NJ, Dahmen N, Lieb K, Tadić A (2010) The catechol o-methyltransferase (COMT) val(158)met polymorphism modulates the association of serious life events (SLE) and impulsive aggression in female patients with borderline personality disorder (BPD). Acta Psychiatr Scand 122:110–117

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walf AA, Frye CA (2010) Estradiol reduces anxiety- and depression-like behavior of aged female mice. Physiol Behav 99:169–174

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walf AA, Koonce CJ, Frye CA (2008) Estradiol or diarylpropionitrile decrease anxiety-like behavior of wildtype, but not estrogen receptor beta knockout, mice. Behav Neurosci 122:974–981

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walther DJ, Bader M (2003) A unique central tryptophan hydroxylase isoform. Biochem Pharmacol 66:1673–1680

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walther DJ, Peter JU, Bashammakh S, Hörtnagl H, Voits M, Fink H, Bader M (2003) Synthesis of serotonin by a second tryptophan hydroxylase isoform. Science 299:76

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Westberg L, Eriksson E (2008) Sex steroid-related candidate genes in psychiatric disorders. J Psychiatry Neurosci 33:319–330

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Westberg L, Melke J, Landen M, Nilsson S, Baghaei F, Rosmond R, Jansson M, Holm G, Björntorp P, Eriksson E (2003) Association between a dinucleotide repeat polymorphism of the estrogen receptor alpha gene and personality traits in women. Mol Psychiatry 8:118–122

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Westberg L, Henningsson S, Landén M, Annerbrink K, Melke J, Nilsson S, Rosmond R, Holm G, Anckarsäter H, Eriksson E (2009) Influence of androgen receptor repeat polymorphisms on personality traits in men. J Psychiatry Neurosci 34:205–213

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson M, Daly M (1985) Competitiveness, risk-taking, and violence - the Young Male Syndrome. Ethol Sociobiol 6:59–73

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Winqvist R, Lundstrom K, Salminen M, Laatikainen M, Ulmanen I (1991) Mapping of human catechol-O- methyltransferase gene to 22q11.2 and detection of a frequent RFLP with BglI. Cytogenet Cell Genet 58:2051

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu Y, Xu Y, Sun Y, Wang YF, Li X, Lang XE, Wang WP, Zhang KR (2008) Association between the serotonin 1A receptor C(−1019)G polymorphism and major depressive disorder in the northern Han ethnic group in China. Chin Med J (Engl) 121:874–876

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yaich L, Dupont WD, Cavener DR, Parl FF (1992) Analysis of the PvuII restriction fragment-length polymorphism and exon structure of the estrogen receptor gene in breast cancer and peripheral blood. Cancer Res 52:77–83

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yu YZ, Shi JX (2009) Relationship between levels of testosterone and cortisol in saliva and aggressive behaviors of adolescents. Biomed Environ Sci 22:44–49

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zabetian CP, Anderson GM, Buxbaum SG, Elston RC, Ichinose H, Nagatsu T, Kim KS, Kim CH, Malison RT, Gelernter J, Cubells JF (2001) A quantitative-trait analysis of human plasma-dopamine beta-hydroxylase activity: evidence for a major functional polymorphism at the DBH locus. Am J Hum Genet 68:515–522

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zai CC, Ehtesham S, Choi E, Nowrouzi B, de Luca V, Davidge K, Freeman N, King N, Kennedi JL, Beitchman JH. Dopaminergic system genes in childhood aggression: Possible role for DRD2. World J Biol Psychiatry (in press) doi:10.3109/15622975.2010.543431

  • Zalsman G, Frisch A, Bromberg M, Gelernter J, Michaelovsky E, Campino A, Erlich Z, Tyano S, Apter A, Weizman A (2001) Family-based association study of serotonin transporter promoter in suicidal adolescents: no association with suicidality but possible role in violence traits. Am J Med Genet 105:239–245

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zalsman G, Frisch A, Baruch-Movshovits R, Sher L, Michaelovsky E, King RA, Fischel T, Hermesh H, Goldberg P, Gorlyn M, Misgav S, Apter A, Tyano S, Weizman A (2005) Family-based association study of 5-HT(2A) receptor T102C polymorphism and suicidal behavior in Ashkenazi inpatient adolescents. Int J Adolesc Med Health 17:231–238

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zalsman G, Patya M, Frisch A, Ofek H, Schapir L, Blum I, Harell D, Apter A, Weizman A, Tyano S (2011) Association of polymorphisms of the serotonergic pathways with clinical traits of impulsive-aggression and suicidality in adolescents: a multi-center study. World J Biol Psychiatry 12:33–41

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zammit S, Jones G, Jones SJ, Norton N, Sanders RD, Milham C, McCarthy GM, Jones LA, Cardno AG, Gray M, Murphy KC, O'Donovan MC, Owen MJ (2004) Polymorphisms in the MAOA, MAOB, and COMT genes and aggressive behavior in schizophrenia. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 128B:19–20

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zill P, Buttner A, Eisenmenger W, Moller HJ, Ackenheil M, Bondy B (2007) Analysis of tryptophan hydroxylase I and II mRNA expression in the human brain: a post-mortem study. J Psychiatr Res 41:168–173

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmermann P, Mohr C, Spangler G (2009) Genetic and attachment influences on adolescents' regulation of autonomy and aggressiveness. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 50:1339–1347

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zouk H, McGirr A, Lebel V, Benkelfat C, Rouleau G, Turecki G (2007) The effect of genetic variation of the serotonin 1B receptor gene on impulsive aggressive behavior and suicide. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 144B:996–1002

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Medicinal Nanobiotechnology, Pirogov Russian State Medical University, Ulitsa Ostrovityanova 1, 117997, Moscow, Russia

    Dimitry A. Chistiakov & Vladimir P. Chekhonin

  2. Department of Fundamental and Applied Neurobiology, Serbsky State Research Center of Forensic and Social Psychiatry, Kropotkinsky Pereulok 23, 119991, Moscow, Russia

    Konstantin A. Pavlov & Vladimir P. Chekhonin

Authors
  1. Konstantin A. Pavlov
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Dimitry A. Chistiakov
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Vladimir P. Chekhonin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Dimitry A. Chistiakov.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Pavlov, K.A., Chistiakov, D.A. & Chekhonin, V.P. Genetic determinants of aggression and impulsivity in humans. J Appl Genetics 53, 61–82 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13353-011-0069-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13353-011-0069-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation