Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The analysis of rainfall-induced slope failures at Iva Valley area of Enugu State, Nigeria

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Environmental Earth Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper analyses the dominant mechanisms of slope failures and identifies potential obstacles to landslide-hazard reduction at the Iva Valley area, Enugu, Nigeria. The landscape is replete with landslide scars and gullies of varied sizes and the slope deposits comprise unconsolidated, friable sands inter-bedded with thin units of montmorillonitic claystone. Forty-three landslide events were identified in the study area with most being shallow, short run-out movements with slip-surface depth <2 m. The study found the landslides mainly occur in the beginning of rainy season characterized by short duration, high intensity rainfall. An integrated approach comprising field mapping, laboratory tests and numerical analyses reveals that the barren nature of the slopes prior to the outset of rainy season, high rainfall intensity, erosion, overgrazing, soil characteristics and the site’s unique lithologic sequence are the main causes of instability. Shearing tests under several conditions showed that the soils strongly strain-soften until low steady-state strength is achieved. A computer code, based on this strength reduction technique, used input parameters obtained from the field and laboratory studies to simulate a landslide with similar structure, travel distance and distribution area. It is noted that urbanization has gradually increased the vulnerability of the society’s poor to landslide hazards as they now erect unplanned residence (tents and blocks) on the slopes. This work is part of a regional study aimed at finding ways of protecting the vulnerable by generating data that could be used to build future landslide susceptibility map.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Fig. 14

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Akgun A, Turk N (2010) Landslide susceptibility mapping for Ayvalik (Western Turkey) and its vicinity by multicriteria decision analysis. Environ Earth Sci 61(3):595–611

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson SA, Sitar N (1995) Analysis of rainfall-induced debris flow. J Geotech Eng 121(7):544–552

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson MG, Holcombe EA, Renaud JP (2007) Assessing slope stability in unplanned settlements in developing countries. J Environ Manag 85(1):101–111

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arikan F, Yoleri F, Sezer S, Caglan D, Biliyul B (2010) Geotechnical assessments of the stability of slopes at the Cakmakkaya and Damar open pit mines (Turkey): a case study. Environ Earth Sci 61(4):741–755

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benkhelil J (1989) The origin and evolution of the Cretaceous Benue Trough (Nigeria). J Afr Earth Sci 8:251–282

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • BeVille SH, Mirus BB, Ebel BA, Mader GG, George G, Loague K (2010) Using simulated hydrologic response to revisit the 1973 Lerida Court landslide. Environ Earth Sci 61(6):1249–1257

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell RH (1975) Soil slips, debris flows and rainstorms in the Santa Monica mountains and vicinity, Southern California. US Geological Survey Professional Paper, vol 851, Washington

  • Chae BG, Kim MI (2012) Suggestion of a method for landslide early warning using the change in the volumetric water content gradient due to rainfall infiltration. Environ Earth Sci 66(7):1973–1986

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen HS, Liu JW, Zhang W, Wang KL (2012a) Soil hydraulic properties on the steep karst hill slopes in northwest Guangxi, China. Environ Earth Sci 66(1):371–379

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen XQ, Li Y, Gao Q, Jia ST (2012b) Distribution characteristics of geo-hazards in Ganxi Valley after the Wenchuan earthquake. Environ Earth Sci 65(4):965–973

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Corominas J (2001) Landslides and climate. In: Bromhead E, Dixon N, Iben ML (eds) 8th international symposium on landslides, vol 4. Balkema, Cardiff, pp 1–33

    Google Scholar 

  • Crosta GB, Dal Negro P (2003) Observations and modelling of soil slip-debris flow initiation processes in pyroclastic deposits: the Sarno 1998 event. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 3:53–69

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crozier M (1986) Landslides: causes, consequences and environment. Croom Helm, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Cruden DM, Varnes DJ (1996) Landslide types and processes. In: Turner AK, Schuster RL (eds) Special report 247: landslides investigation, mitigation. National Research Council, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC, pp 36–75

    Google Scholar 

  • Federico A, Popescu M, Elia G, Fidelibus C, Interno G, Murianni A (2012) Prediction of time to slope failure: a general framework. Environ Earth Sci 66(1):245–256

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fukuoka M (1980) Landslides associated with rainfall. Geotech Eng 11:1–29

    Google Scholar 

  • Geertsema M, Schwab JW, Blais-Stevens A, Sakals ME (2009) Landslides impacting linear infrastructure in west central British Columbia. Nat Hazards 48:59–72

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giannecchini R (2006) Relationship between rainfall and shallow landslides in the southern Apuan Alps (Italy). Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 6:357–364

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gostelow P (1991) Rainfall and landslides. In: Almeida-Teixeira M (ed) Prevention and control of landslides and other mass movements. CEC, Brussels, pp 139–161

    Google Scholar 

  • Hungr O, Evans SG, Bovis MJ, Hutchinson JN (2001) Review of the classification of landslides of the flow type. Environ Eng Geosci 7:221–238

    Google Scholar 

  • Igwe O (2012) (2012) ICL/IPL regional activities in West Africa. Landslides 9:433–437

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Igwe O, Fukuoka H (2010) Environmental and socioeconomic impact of erosion in Nigeria, West Africa. Int J Eros Control Eng 3(1):102–109

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Igwe O, Sassa K, Wang FW (2007) The influence of grading on the shear strength of loose sands in stress-controlled ring shear tests. Landslides 4(1):43–51

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Igwe O, Fukuoka H, Sassa K (2012) The effect of relative density and confining stress on shear properties of sands with varying grading. Geotech Geol Eng 30:1207–1229

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iverson RM (1992) Sensitivity of stability analysis to groundwater data. In: Proceedings of the VIth international symposium on landslides. Balkema, Rotterdam, 10–14 Feb 1992

  • Iverson RM (1997) The physics of debris flows. Rev Geophys 35(3):245–296

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iverson RM (2003) The debris flow rheology myth. In: Rickenmann D, Cheng-lung C (eds) Proceedings third international conference on debris-flow hazards mitigation: mechanics, prediction and assessment 1. Davos, Switzerland, pp 303–314

    Google Scholar 

  • Iverson RM, Reid ME, LaHusen RG (1997) Debris-flow mobilization from landslides. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 25:85–138

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jakob M, Hungr O (2005) Introduction. In: Jakob M, Hungr O (eds) Debris-flow hazards and related phenomena. Springer-Praxis, Chichester, pp 1–7

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Jakob M, Holm K, Lange O, Schwab JW (2006) Hydrometeorological thresholds for landslide initiation and forest operation shutdowns on the north coast of British Columbia. Landslides 3. doi:10.1007/s10346-006-0044-1

  • Kawabe H (1992) On the influence of pore pressure on land deformation of a landslide. In: Proceedings of the VIth international symposium on landslides, Balkema, Rotterdam, 10–14 Feb 1992

  • Ko Ko C, Chowdhury R, Flentje P (2005) Hazard and risk assessment of rainfall—induced landsliding along a railway line. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol 38:197–213

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kogbe CA (1989) Palaeogeographic history of Nigeria from Albian times. In: Kogbe CA (ed) Geology of Nigeria. Elizabethan Publ. Co, Lagos, pp 257–275

    Google Scholar 

  • Koo YC, Lumb P (1981) Correlation between rainfall intensities and groundwater levels in the natural slopes of Hong Kong. Hong Kong Eng 1:49–52

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee KL, Farhoomand I (1967) Compressibility and crushing of granular soils in anisotropic triaxial compression. Can Geotech J 4(1):68–86

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee CC, Zeng LS, Hsieh CH, Yu CY (2012) Determination of mechanisms and hydrogeological environments of Gangxianlane landslides using geoelectrical and geological data in central Taiwan. Environ Earth Sci 66(6):1641–1651

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lepore C, Kamal SA, Shanahan P, Bras RL (2012) Rainfall-induced landslide susceptibility zonation of Puerto Rico. Environ Earth Sci 66(6):1667–1681

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li XP, He SM, Luo Y, Wu Y (2012) Simulation of the sliding process of Donghekou landslide triggered by the Wenchuan earthquake using a distinct element method. Environ Earth Sci 65(4):1049–1054

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liao ZH, Hong Y, Kirschbaum D, Liu C (2012) Assessment of shallow landslides from Hurricane Mitch in Central America using a physically based model. Environ Earth Sci 66(6):1697–1705

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lourenco SDN, Wang GH, Chu JA (2011) Aspects of sand behaviour by modified constant shear drained tests. Environ Earth Sci 62(4):865–870

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Obi GC, Okogbue CO (2004) Sedimentary response to Tectonism in the Campanian-Maastrichtian succession, Anambra Basin, Southeastern Nigeria. J Afr Earth Sci 38:99–108

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Obi GC, Okogbue CO, Nwajide CS (2001) Evolution of the Enugu Cuesta: a tectonically driven erosional process. Global J Pure Appl Sci 7:321–330

    Google Scholar 

  • Oboh-Ikuenobe FE, Obi GC, Jamarillo CA (2005) Lithofacies, palynofacies and sequence stratigraphy of paleogene strata in Southeastern Nigeria. J Afr Earth Sci 41:79–101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ojoh KA (1992) Southern part of the Benue trough (Nigeria): cretaceous stratigraphy, Basin-Analysis, Palaeo-oceanography and geodynamic evolution in the equatorial domain of the south Atlantic. Natl Assoc Petroleum Explor Bull 7:131–152

    Google Scholar 

  • Onwuka OS, Uma KO, Ezeigbo HI (2004) Portability of shallow groundwater in Enugu, Southeast Nigeria. Global J Environ Sci 33(1):33–39

    Google Scholar 

  • Perucca LP, Yanina M, Angillieri E (2009) Evolution of a debris-rock slide causing a natural dam: the flash flood of Rio Santa Cruz, Province of San Juan—November 12, 2005. Nat Hazards 50:305–320

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sassa K (1988) Geotechnical model for the motion of landslides. In: Proceedings 5th international symposium on landslides, “Landslides”, vol 1. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 37–56

  • Sassa K, Takei A, Kobashi S (1980) Landslides triggered by vertical subsidences. In: Proceedings international symposium on landslides, vol 1. New Delhi, pp 49–54, 7–11 April 1980

  • Sassa K, Wang G, Fukuoka H (2003) Performing undrained shear tests on saturated sands in a new intelligent-type of ring shear apparatus. Geotech Test J 26(3):257–265

    Google Scholar 

  • Sassa K, Wang G, Fukuoka H, Wang FW, Ochiai T, Sugiyama M, Sekiguchi T (2004) Landslide risk evaluation and hazard mapping for rapid and long-travel landslides in urban development areas. Landslides 1(3):221–235

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Selby MJ (1993) Hillslope materials and processes, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, New York, p 451

    Google Scholar 

  • Skempton AW (1964) Long-term stability of clay slopes. Geotechnique 14(2):77–102

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Takahashi T (1991) Debris flow. Balkema, Rotterdam, p 165

    Google Scholar 

  • Takahashi T (2001) Process of occurrence, flow and deposition of viscous debris flow. In: Seminara G, Blondeaux P (eds) River, coastal and estuarine morphodynamics. Springer, Berlin, pp 93–118

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Terlien M (1998) The determination of statistical and deterministic hydrological landslide-triggering thresholds. Environ Geol 35(2–3):124–130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tokashiki N, Aydan O (2011) Kita-Uebaru natural rock slope failure and its back analysis. Environ Earth Sci 62(1):25–31

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsai TL (2011) Influences of soil water characteristic curve on rainfall-induced shallow landslides. Environ Earth Sci 64(2):449–459

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsai TL, Chen HF (2010) Effects of degree of saturation on shallow landslides triggered by rainfall. Environ Earth Sci 59(6):1285–1295

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsai TL, Wang JK (2011) Examination of influences of rainfall patterns on shallow landslides due to dissipation of matric suction. Environ Earth Sci 63(1):65–75

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wafid MA, Sassa K, Fukuoka H, Wang G (2004) Evolution of shear-zone in undrained ring shear tests. Landslides 1:101–112

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang G, Sassa K (2001) Factor affecting the rainfall-induced flowslides in laboratory flume tests. Geotechnique 51(7):587–599

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wieczorek GF (1996) Landslides triggering mechanisms. In: Turner AK (ed) Landslides investigation and mitigation. National Research Council, Transportation Research Board, Washington, pp 76–90

    Google Scholar 

  • Yellishetty M, Darlington WJ (2011) Effects of monsoonal rainfall on waste dump stability and respective geo-environmental issues: a case study. Environ Earth Sci 63(6):1169–1177

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang LL, Fredlund DG, Zhang LM, Tang WH (2004) Conditions under which soil suction can be maintained. Can Geotech J 41(4):569–582

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang LL, Zhang LM, Tang WH (2005) Rainfall-induced slope failure considering variability of soil properties. Geotechnique 55(2):183–188

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang LL, Zhang J, Zhang LM, Tang WH (2011) Stability analysis of rainfall-induced slope failures: a review. Geotech Eng Proc Inst Civil Eng 164(5):299–316

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research was conducted under the International Programme on Landslides Project (Project No.150) which is supported by UNESCO, ISDR and UNISDR. The contributions of Professor Sassa Kyoji and Associate Professor Fukuoka Hiroshi of the Centre on Landslides, Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, Japan, are deeply appreciated. Finally, we are grateful to Professor Fawu Wang of the Department of Geo-science, Shimane University, Japan for his continual assistance.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Geology, Faculty of Physical Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria

    Ogbonnaya Igwe, Wilfred Mode, Okechukwu Nnebedum, Ikenna Okonkwo & Ifeanyi Oha

Authors
  1. Ogbonnaya Igwe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Wilfred Mode
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Okechukwu Nnebedum
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Ikenna Okonkwo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Ifeanyi Oha
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ogbonnaya Igwe.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Igwe, O., Mode, W., Nnebedum, O. et al. The analysis of rainfall-induced slope failures at Iva Valley area of Enugu State, Nigeria. Environ Earth Sci 71, 2465–2480 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-013-2647-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-013-2647-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation