Abstract
Drawing on the PIAAC data, in this paper I examine how motivational factors such as motivation to learn and grit are related to low-numerate adults’ employment status and their actual participation in lifelong learning in Germany, the United States and South Korea. In particular, the study uses PIAAC self-reported data on the degree to which the respondent “likes learning new things”, and “likes to get to the bottom of difficult things” as proxies of motivational factors in adult learning. Findings show that across three countries both motivation to learn and grit have independent relationships with adults’ employment status and actual participation in adult learning. Considering that low-skilled adults are the ones who need further learning the most, yet are repeatedly reported to have the lowest rate of participation in further learning, these findings highlight the motivational factors in adult learning. They also suggest that motivation to learn and grit may mitigate the disadvantages that ‘vulnerable’ adults experience due to low numeracy skills. Implications for mathematics educators and adult education research are discussed.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
The Lilien index is calculated as the weighted standard deviation of sectoral employment growth relative to aggregate employment growth.
For more details about three countries’ profiles, please refer to the 3rd Global Report on Adult Learning and Education by UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning and Future-Ready Adult Learning Systems by the OECD.
References
Attanasio, O. P., Blundell, R. W., Conti, G., & Mason, G. (2018). Inequality in socioemotional skills: A cross-cohort comparison (No. W18/22). IFS Working Papers.
Avvisati, F., & Keslair, F. (2014). REPEST: Stata module to run estimations with weighted replicate samples and plausible values. Statistical Software Components S457918, Boston College Department of Economics.
BMBF. (2018). Weiterbildungsverhalten in Deutschland 2018. Ergebnisse des Adult Education Survey (AES). Bonn. Retrieved from https://www.bmbf.de/upload_filestore/pub/Weiterbildungsverhalten_in_Deutschland_2018.pdf.
Buff, A., Reusser, K., & Dinkelmann, I. (2017). Parental support and enjoyment of learning in mathematics: does change in parental support predict change in enjoyment of learning? ZDM Mathematics Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-016-0823-7.
Bynner, J., & Parsons, S. (2006). New light on literacy and numeracy. London: National Research and Development centre for adult literacy and numeracy.
Cambria, J., Brandt, H., Nagengast, B., & Trautwein, U. (2017). Frame of Reference effects on values in mathematics: Evidence from German secondary school students. ZDM Mathematics Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-017-0841-0.
Coben, D. (2000). Numeracy, mathematics, and adult learning. In I. Gal (Ed.), Adult numeracy development: Theory, research, practice (pp. 33–50). Cresskill: Hampton Press.
Coben, D. (2002). Mathematics or common sense? Researching ‘invisible’ mathematics through adults’ mathematics life histories. In D. Coben, J. O’Donoghue, & G. E. FitzSimons (Eds.), Perspectives on adults learning mathematics: Research and practice (pp. 53–65). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Condelli, L., Safford-Ramus, K., Sherman, R., Coben, D., Gal, I., & Hector-Mason, A. (2006). A review of the literature in adult numeracy: research and conceptual issues. (Prepared by American Institutes for Research for the Adult Numeracy Initiative of the US. Department of Education, Office of Vocational and Adult Education). Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED495456.pdf.
Crittenden, A. H. (2000). A case study of the perception of the development and transfer of work related mathematical concepts to personal finance management for women in a remedial mathematics class. Dissertation Abstracts International, 61 (09), 3437A. (UMI No. 9986406).
Cunha, F., Heckman, J. J., Lochner, L., & Masterov, D. V. (2006). Interpreting the evidence on life cycle skill formation. Handbook of the Economics of Education,1, 697–812.
Deming, D. J. (2017). The growing importance of social skills in the labor market. The Quarterly Journal of Economics,132(4), 1593–1640.
Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (BIS). (2012). 2011 Skills for Life survey: A survey of literacy, numeracy and ICT levels in England. London (BIS Research Paper, 81). Retrieved from https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/36000/12-p168-2011-skills-for-life-survey.pdf.
Desjardins, R. (2013). The economics of adult education: A critical assessment of the state of investment in adult education. Adult learning in a precarious age. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., & Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,9, 1087–1101.
Espinoza, R., Sarzosa, M., Urzúa, S., & Miyamoto, K. (2014). The causal effect of skills: An international study (pp. 1–53). Maryland: University of Maryland.
FitzSimons, G. E., & Coben, D. (2009). Adult numeracy for work and life: Curriculum and teaching implications of recent research. In R. Maclean & D. Wilson (Eds.), International handbook of education for the changing world of work: Bridging academic and vocational learning: 1–6 (pp. 2731–2745). Dordrecht: Springer.
Frenzel, A. C., Goetz, T., Ludtke, O., Pekrun, R., & Sutton, R. E. (2009). Emotional transmission in the classroom: Exploring the relationship between teacher and student enjoyment. Journal of Educational Psychology,101(3), 705–716.
Gal, I. (2002). Adults’ statistical literacy: Meanings, components, responsibilities. International Statistical Review,70(1), 1–25.
Gal, I., Alatorre, S., Close, S., Evans, J., Johansen, L., Maguire, T. et al. (2009). PIAAC Numeracy. A conceptual framework. OECD Education Working Paper No. 35. Paris: OECD Publishing.
Gal, I., Grotlüschen, A., Tout, D., Kaiser, G. (2020). Numeracy, adult education, and ‘vulnerable’ learners: A critical review of a neglected field. ZDM Mathematics Education, 52(2).
Gal, I., van Groenestijn, M., Manly, M., Schmitt, M. J., & Tout, D. (2005). Adult numeracy and its assessment in the ALL survey: A conceptual framework and pilot results. In T. S. Murray, Y. Clermont, & M. Binkley (Eds.), Measuring adult literacy and life skills: New frameworks for assessment (pp. 137–191). Ottawa: Statistics Canada.
Gorges, J., Maehler, D. B., Koch, T., & Offerhaus, J. (2016). Who likes to learn new things: Measuring adult motivation to learn with PIAAC data from 21 countries. Large-scale Assessments in Education,4(1), 9.
Grotlüschen, A., & Bonna F. (2008). German-language literature review. In Teaching, learning and assessment for adults: Improving foundation skills. OECD Publishing. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1787/172255303131.
Grotlüschen, A., Buddeberg, K., Dutz, G., Heilmann, L., Stammer, C. (2019a). LEO 2018—Living with low literacy. Press brochure, Hamburg. http://blogs.epb.uni-hamburg.de/leo.
Grotlüschen, A., Buddeberg, K., Redmer, A., Ansen, H., & Dannath, J. (2019b). Vulnerable subgroups and numeracy practices: How poverty, debt, and unemployment relate to everyday numeracy practices. Adult Education Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741713619841132.
Grotlüschen, A., Mallows, D., Reder, S., & Sabatini, J. (2016). Adults with low proficiency in literacy or numeracy. OECD Education Working Papers, No. 131, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/5jm0v44bnmnx-en.
Guerra, N., Modecki, K., & Cunningham, W. (2014). Developing social-emotional skills for the labor market: The PRACTICE model. The World Bank.
Guglielmino, P. J., & Guglielmino, L. M. (2011). An exploration of cultural dimensions and economic indicators as predictors of self-directed learning readiness. International Journal of Self-Directed Learning,8(1), 29–45.
Guglielmino, P. J., Guglielmino, L. M., & Long, H. B. (1987). Self-directed learning readiness and performance in the workplace. Higher Education,16(3), 303–317.
Hodgen, J., Coben, D., & Rhodes, V. (2010). Feedback, talk and engaging with learners: Formative assessment in adult numeracy. London: National Research and Development Centre for Adult Literacy and Numeracy.
John, O. P., & Srivastava, S. (1999). The Big-Five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and theoretical perspectives. In L. A. Pervin & O. P. John (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (Vol. 2, pp. 102–138). New York: Guilford Press.
Jonas, N. (2012). In the most recent birth cohorts, adults have fewer difficulties in writing, but greater ones in arithmetic. INSEE PREMIERE, No 1426. Paris. Retrieved from https://www.insee.fr/en/statistiques/1281411.
Kautz, T., Heckman, J. J., Diris, R., Ter Weel, B., & Borghans, L. (2014). Fostering and measuring skills: Improving cognitive and non-cognitive skills to promote lifetime success (No. w20749). Cambridge: National Bureau of Economic Research.
Kibum, K., Jiwon, P., & Soo-yong, B. (2019). Gender, nonformal learning, and earnings in South Korea. Journal of Comparative and International Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2019.1596017.
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (2015). The adult learner (8th ed.). Oxford: Elsevier.
Krapp, A. (2005). Basic needs and the development of interest and intrinsic motivational orientations. Learning and Instruction,15, 381–395.
Liu, H., Fernandez, F., & Grotlüschen, A. (2019). Examining self-directedness and its relationships with lifelong learning and earnings in Yunnan, Vietnam, Germany, and the United States. International Journal of Educational Development,70, 102088.
Maguire, T., & O’Donoghue, J. (2002). A grounded approach to practitioner training in Ireland: Some findings from a national survey of practitioners in Adult Basic Education. In: L. Ø.Johansen & T. Wedege (Eds.), Numeracy for empowerment and democracy? Proceedings of the 8th International Conference of Adult Learning Mathematics—A Research Forum (ALM8) (pp. 120–132). Roskilde, Denmark, Roskilde University, Centre for Research in Learning Mathematics. Hent, UK: Avanti Books.
Marcou, A., & Lerman, S. (2007). Changes in students’ motivational beliefs and performance in a self-regulated mathematical problem-solving environment (pp. 288–297). Cyprus: CERME 5.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2011). Literacy for life: Further results from the Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264091269-en.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2016a). Skills matter: Further results from the survey of adult skills. Paris: OECD Skills Studies, OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264258051-en.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2016b). Technical report of the survey of adult skills (PIAAC) (2nd ed.). Paris: OECD Publishing.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2019a). Getting skills right: Future-ready adult learning systems. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264311756-en.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2019b). The use of test scores in secondary analysis A dialogue between data users and data producers. OECD PIAAC Methodological Seminar, Paris. http://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/The_use_of_test_scores_in_secondary_analysis_14_June_2019_Concept_Note.pdf.
Paccagnella, M. (2016). Literacy and numeracy proficiency in IALS, ALL and PIAAC, OECD Education Working Papers, No. 142, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/5jlpq7qglx5g-en.
Perels, F., Gürtler, T., & Schmitz, B. (2005). Training of self-regulatory and problem-solving competence. Learning and Instruction,15, 123–139.
Rammstedt, B., & John, O. P. (2007). Measuring personality in one minute or less: A 10-item short version of the big five inventory in English and German. Journal of Research in Personality,41(1), 203–212.
Reder, S. (2008). The development of literacy and numeracy in adult life. In S. Reder & J. Bynner (Eds.), Tracking adult literacy and numeracy skills: Findings from Longitudinal Research (pp. 79–104). New York: Routledge.
Rubin, D. B. (1987). Multiple imputation for nonresponse in surveys. New York: John Wiley.
Schooler, C., & Schoenbach, C. (1994). Social class, occupational status, occupational self-direction, and job income: A cross-national examination. Sociological Forum,9(3), 431–458.
Schukajlow, S., & Krug, A. (2012). Effects of treating multiple solutions on students’ self-regulation, self-efficacy and value. In: T. Y. Tso (Ed.), Proceedings of the 36th Conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education. Taipei: PME, pp.59–66.
Schukajlow, S., Rakoczy, K., & Pekrun, R. (2017). Emotions and motivation in mathematics education: Theoretical considerations and empirical contributions. ZDM Mathematics Education,49(3), 307–322.
Swain, J., Baker, E., Holder, D., Newmarch, B., & Coben, D. (2005). ‘Beyond the daily application’: Making numeracy teaching meaningful to adult learners. London: National Research and Development Centre for Adult Literacy and Numeracy.
von Davier, M., Gonzalez, E., & Mislevy, R. (2009). What are plausible values and why are they useful. IERI Monograph Series,2(1), 9–36.
Whitten, D. R. (2018). Understanding the beliefs and behaviours of low-skilled adults as they re-engage with mathematics. Doctoral dissertation, The University of Waikato.
Yamamoto, K., Khorramdel, L., Davier, M. (2013). Scaling PIAAC cognitive data. In: OECD (Ed.), Technical report of the survey of adult skills PIAAC. OECD, Paris, pp. 1–33.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Appendix A
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Liu, H. Low-numerate adults, motivational factors in learning, and their employment, education and training status in Germany, the US, and South Korea. ZDM Mathematics Education 52, 419–431 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-019-01108-x
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-019-01108-x