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Advancing towards constitutive equations for the metal industry via the LEDS theory

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Abstract

A prime objective in the development of crystal dislocation theory has been, and at any rate should be, constitutive equations for practical use in the metal forming industry. Protracted controversies regarding workhardening theory have frustrated this goal for the past seven decades. The are fueled by the paradox that plastic deformation is a prime example for the second law of thermodynamics in converting mechanical work into heat with good efficiency, even while in seeming opposition to the second law it typically raises the internal energy of the deformed material. The low-energy dislocation structures (LEDS) theory resolves this difficulty by showing that, as always in inanimate nature, so also plastic deformation proceeds close to minimum free energy. Indeed recent evidence based on deformation band structures proves that plastic deformation typically proceeds very close to minimum energy among the accessible configurations. White plastic strain raises the flow stress, in ductile crystalline materials mostly through generating dislocation structures, but also through twins, kink bands, microcracks and others, Newton’s third law, i.e., force equilibrium, is always stringently obeyed. Therefore, deformation dislocation structures are in thermal equilibrium as long as the stress that generated them remains in place. Based on this concept of free energy minimization, the LEDS theory has long since explained, at least semiquantitatively, all significant aspects of metal strength and deformation, as well as the effects of heat treatments. The LEDS theory is the special case, namely, as pertaining to dislocation structures, of the more general low-energy structures (LEDS) theory that governs all types of deformation independent of the deformation mechanism, and that operates in all types of materials, including plastics.

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The Edward DeMille Campbell Memorial Lecture was established in 1926 as an annual lecture in memory of and in recognition of the outstanding scientific contributions to the metallurgical profession by a distinguished educator who was blind for all but two years of his professional life. It recognizes demonstrated ability in metallurgical science and engineering.

This lecture was presented to honor Edward DeMille Campbell (University of Michigan, Class of 1886), born in 1863, who was appointed Assistant Professor of Metallurgy in 1890. Dr. Campbell brought a strong interest in the study of the constitution of metals and alloys to the University of Michigan. In 1892, during a study of the composition of steel, he lost his eyesight in a laboratory explosion. Within five days, he returned to the University and resumed his teaching and research. Over the next 30 years, he published 72 research papers and developed a laboratory course in metallography. In 1924, working under the direction of Professor Campbell, William Fink discovered a new, tetragonal form of iron (martensite) in the first significant application of a new tool, X-ray diffraction, to physical metallurgy. It was these experiments that established the beginning of a strong tradition in physical metallurgy at the University of Michigan. In 1898, Campbell led the effort to establish Chemical Engineering at Michigan, becoming Professor of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Chemistry in 1902. In 1914, Campbell was appointed Director of the University’s Chemical Laboratory and Professor of Chemistry. Following his death in 1925, the American Society for Metals established this annual award in his name.

Dr. Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf, a University of Virginia faculty member since 1963, teaches in the Physics Department and in the Engineering School’s Materials Science Department. In 2001, she was named Christopher J. Henderson Inventor of the Year for her improvements to industrial machinery, which include six patented inventions relating to electrical brushes—simple but critically important parts of most motors and generators. These brushes establish the electrical connection between an outside power source and the rotating part of machinery, electrically linking moving and stationary objects, such as an electric train and an overhead electrical cable. The metal-fiber brushes invented by Dr. Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf are critical to the success of homopolar machines, whether motors or generators.

A Fellow and Life Member of ASM International, her research interests are crystal defects, metal surfaces, and mechanical properties, and her research interests focus on workhardening, tribology, melting, and electrical contacts. A native of Germany, she received her bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees from Göttingen University and a doctor of science degree from South Africa’s University of the Witwatersrand. Her publication list of nearly 300 articles begins in 1947 and runs through the present. “In the academic world you must publish or perish,” Dr. Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf once said. “Since I didn’t want to perish, I published.”

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Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf, D. Advancing towards constitutive equations for the metal industry via the LEDS theory. Metall Mater Trans A 35, 369–418 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-004-0351-x

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