RETRACTED ARTICLE: The COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on environment: the case of the major cities in Pakistan

Abstract

In Wuhan city, China, a pneumonia-like disease of unknown origin triggered a catastrophe. This disease has spread to 215 nations, affecting a diverse variety of persons. It was formally called extreme acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS CoV-2), also known as coronavirus disease, by the World Health Organization as a pandemic. This pandemic forced countries to enforce a socio-economic lockdown to avoid its widespread presence. This study focuses on how the pollution of particulate matter during the coronavirus pandemic in the period from 23 March 2020 to 31 December 2020 was reduced compared to the pre-pandemic situation in the country. The improvement in air quality and atmosphere due to the coronavirus pandemic in Pakistan was identified by both ground-based and satellite observations with a primary focus on the four provincial capitals and country capitals, namely, Peshawar, Karachi, Quetta, Lahore, and Islamabad, and statistically verified through paired Student’s t test. Both datasets have shown a significant decrease in the levels of PM_2.5 pollutions across Pakistan (ranging from 15 to 35% for satellite observations, while 27 to 61% for ground-based observations). The result shows that poor air quality is one of the key factors for a higher COVID-19 spread rate in major Pakistani cities. By extending the same investigation across the nation, there is a greater need to investigate the connections between COVID-19 spread and air pollution. However, both higher population density rates and frequent population exposure can be partially attributed to increased levels of PM_2.5 concentrations before the pandemic of the coronavirus.

Introduction

In the city of Wuhan, China, several belongings of pneumonia due to an unexplained origin began to occur during the initial days of December 2019. The genetic sequencing of this disease has shown that it is produced by an unusual coronavirus, publicly identified by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) as extreme acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS CoV-2) (Lai et al. 2020). Coronavirus, similarly referred to as COVID-19, is the 5^th epidemic that occurred vertebral in 1918 subsequent to the Spanish flu pandemic. COVID-19 has ranged via human-human broadcast from China to other countries (Liu et al. 2020) and mainly affects the respiratory system (Waris et al. 2020). The WHO declared SARS CoV-2 as a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) on 30 January 2020 due to its elevated frequency of conduction distressing multiple people in a short amount of time (WHO Timeline 2020). In new parts of the creation, the number of novel cases rose 13 times quicker than the figure of new cases in China through February 2020. Future, on the eleventh, COVID-19 was announced as an extensive by WHO in March 2020 (Javed et al. 2020). This outbreak is reportedly affecting about 72 countries, causing 482,914 deaths worldwide by 25 June 2020 (Irwansyah et al. 2020). Pakistan took the 1^st definite corona case in Karachi on 26 February 2020. One clarification for this might be that Pakistan imparts its line to China in the North and Iran positioned tenth among the nations with the most noteworthy number of detailed instances of coronavirus in Pakistan. The number of cases handily increased. Starting at 31 December 2020, there were around 490,476 affirmed combined COVID cases in Pakistan, with 38,395, 59,729, 219,452, 141,393, 18,254, 4870, and 8383 cases in Islamabad, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Sindh, Punjab, Baluchistan, Gilgit-Baltistan, and Azad Jammu and Kashmir, separately (MNHS 2020). Nonetheless, this sensational ascent in coronavirus at worldwide levels may have another segment. It is perceived that expanded air discharges will bring about viral respiratory infections influencing 12–24% of the populace, as per Curran (2020). Openness to toxin prerequisites, for example, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur oxides, ozone and particulate issue (PM10 and PM2.5). This makes the populace more defenseless to coronavirus like irresistible illnesses. Since respiratory viral diseases significantly affect horribleness and even mortality, it is intriguing to sort out how air contamination will expand the danger and reality of respiratory viral diseases upon openness.

Pakistan is among the topmost contaminated nations in South Asia, as laid out by Nemours scientists, for example, Sánchez-Triana et al. (2014); Khokhar et al. (2016) and Anjum et al. (2020). PM focuses in Pakistan, as in other South Asian countries, much of the time outperform the protected furthest reaches of the WHO. In the 2019 World Air Quality Review, Pakistan was positioned as the second most contaminated country in South Asia (WHO 2019) as presented in Fig. 1. Peshawar with yearly mean PM_2.5 convergences of 69.2 μg/mc, Lahore with a yearly mean PM_2.5 grouping of 68 μg/mc, and Karachi with yearly mean PM2.5 centralizations of 75 μg/mc are under 155-Unfortunate, as per AQICN (2020). Khan et al. (2018) and Ali et al. (2021) found that other enormous toxins close to Pakistan’s metropolitan urban communities additionally uncovered higher convergences of other poison boundaries, for example, O₃, NO₂, and CO₂, which can likewise prompt the further conveyance of respiratory conditions.

Fig. 1

Ranking of world’s most polluted cities by particulate matter (i.e., PM_2.5 and PM₁₀)

As indicated by Mahmood et al., higher air quality is adding to more noteworthy wellbeing results in 2018. Given its morphology and home time, how antagonistically a poison can influence wellbeing. As opposed to PM₁₀, PM_2.5 is little in size and its home time is longer, making it conceivable to go into the lungs, being essential for the blood supply and influencing different tissues and making further poisonousness. PM2.5 cause more mucous and less ciliary action to make reformist and slow aggravation of the respiratory pathways, bringing about intense respiratory and viral contaminations in individuals persistently presented to it. Frontera (2020) showed that raised PM_2.5 levels have additionally brought about flu infection transmission. Furthermore, this shows a potential association between coronavirus and hotspots for air contamination (particularly territories with air toxin idleness because of climatic conditions, nearby emanations, and geology of that locale). Numerous nations have consented to actualize financial lockdowns to discourage the transmission of the illness because of developing instances of coronavirus. This move has had a constructive outcome on the world’s atmosphere and air quality, and Pakistan has been no special case. The public authority of Pakistan delivered chief requests in 21 March 2020, to authorize a lockdown by limiting social action and monetary exercises starting on 23 March 2020, and systems keep on being state-of-the-art in the nation as shrewd lockdowns. At exceptionally nearby levels, various endeavors have been made to guarantee shrewd lockout to prevent the spread of coronavirus. There has been a consistent change in air quality around the world, notwithstanding numerous monetary misfortunes. The results of this lockdown because of the pandemic of the COVID-19 were obvious as even individuals could see the blue tone of the sky through their unaided eyes and sense the newness of the climate over the significant urban communities of Pakistan; the compression of air pollution before and during a pandemic is well presented in Figs. 2 and 3. At the point when travel was less utilized, the end of little businesses and makers brought about expanded air quality. Thusly, the vital reason for this investigation is to analyze the environmental impacts of the coronavirus pandemic in Pakistan (as a lockdown). As such, the uniqueness in PM_2.5 fixations when the pandemic of the COVID-19 in Pakistan and its connection with the particulate matter. The results of the coronavirus flare-up in Pakistan. What is more, “how lockdown during the coronavirus pandemic assisted with improving air quality and the climate” is the particular examination issue.

Fig. 2

Before pandemic images of major cities and capital of Pakistan

Fig. 3

During pandemic images of major cities and capital of Pakistan taken by individuals

The rest of this work is coordinated as follows: “Brief literature review” section presented detail literature review. “Methodology and data” section incorporates depictions of the strategies and information utilized in this examination and computational climate, while “Computation and discussion” section gives a concise conversation of the results. Finally, “Conclusion and implementation” section finishes this research with suggestions and implications for approach. Furthermore, results of Student’s t test are given in Appendix Tables 2 and 3.

Brief literature review

The COVID-19 pandemic is considered the most crucial global health calamity of the century and the greatest challenge that the humankind faced since the 2^nd World War. Since the pandemic is affecting all aspect of our lives, it is appropriate to examine the effect on our environment. Especially with lockdown, air pollution may improve, and we have seen some examples around the world.

Nemours researcher attempted to investigate the impact of coronavirus on economy, society, public health, and environment. Most prominent among them are Chakraborty and Maity (2020). They investigated the impact of COVID-19 on public health and global environment and discussed the ways through which COVID-19 can be controlled. Lau et al. (2020) investigated the influence of social lockdown due to COVID-19 outbreak in Wuhan, China. They analyzed publically available data on confirmed COVID-19 cases before and after lockdown measures and found positive influence of lockdown on coronavirus spread. Similarly, Coccia (2020) examined the impact of short-time and long-time countrywide lockdown due to coronavirus pandemic on public health in selected countries of Europe. They found that long-time lockdown was not effective as compared to shorter one on public health in selected European countries.

Additionally, Cole et al. (2020) examined the impact of lockdown due to coronavirus pandemic on health and air pollution through machine learning approach and found no obvious impact on concentrations of SO22. Kumar and Managi (2020) investigated the effect of severity of lockdown on air pollution in major cities of India and found that control measure had positive effect on improvement in air pollution, but this effect was not uniform across the cities of India. In another study, Abou El-Magd and Zanaty (2020) examined the short-term impact of lockdown due to COVID-19 on air quality in Egypt. Abou El-Magd and Zanaty (2020) used multi-data sensors and found that short-term lockdown had a significant impact on air quality and observed great reduction of carbon emissions from transportation, industrial, and human activities in Egypt. Another study was conducted by Kang et al. (2020) in which the researcher studied secondary impact of COVID-19 on people’s way of life and work, housing instability, economic shock, and privacy in urban regions.

Furthermore, Piccinini et al. (2020) conducted study on smart lockdown due to COVID-19 and its expectancy in Northern Italy and observed significant reduction in noise pollution during lockdown. Narayanan et al. (2020) and Aman et al. (2020) investigated the socio-economic impact of coronavirus lockdown for India using online survey data. They found that lockdown has significant impact on society and living style and observed that lockdown bring significant change in the lifestyle of human beings by means of online shopping and education, hygiene and health awareness, work from home, changing internet habits and societal changes, and observed improvement in air pollution in India. In similar research, Pacheco et al. (2020) examined NO2 levels during coronavirus pandemic for Ecuador and observed strong association among air NO₂ concentrations and death due to coronavirus.

In another research, Siqueira et al. (2020) conducted ecological study for Spain and studied the effectiveness of lockdown on the outcomes of COVID-19 and observed that lockdown play important role in the control of coronavirus pandemic. Similarly, Mathew et al. (2020) examined the impact of lockdown on self-employed women for Ndola, Zambia. The researchers found that self-employed women were greatly affected by means of poor access to health services, insufficient food supplies, impossibility to recover business, psychological strain, difficulty of medications, and challenges of keeping children indoors.

Methodology and data

Method

To evaluate levels of the environmental particulate issue (e.g., PM_2.5, PM₁₀) continuously, the Beta-ray Attenuation Mass Spectrometer (BAMS) instrument is normally utilized and suggested by the US-EPA. Utilizing a tallness explicit gulf, the showcases are set to the size of PM_2.5 and associated with the analyzer. Inside the analyzer, there is a radiation source that makes beta-beams that are communicated through the glass fiber and projected to be kept on a tape test. Standard lessening limits are determined preceding the start of each cycle. At a stream pace of 16.7 L/min, regardless of the gulf scale, encompassing wind currents through the analyzer. The rate of beta-ray emission is constant and measured by scintillation detector. The pace of beta-beam emanation is steady and determined by a sparkle identifier in 2018, as indicated by English Columbia. The rate at which the lessening happens is straightforwardly relative to the PM_2.5 mass. The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) is usually utilized for AOD estimation by the airborne network.

Statistical technique

We employed paired Student’s t test for unequal sample size to test the hypothesis whether there is statistical evidence that air pollution in the country before and during coronavirus pandemic is significantly different. We formulate our null hypothesis as:

• H_o: The air pollution remains the same in the country.

• H₁: There is significant difference in the air pollution before and after.

The test statistics used for this purpose can be mathematically formulated as:

$$ t=\frac{\left({\overline{X}}_1-{\overline{X}}_2\right)-\left({\mu}_1-{\mu}_2\right)}{\sqrt[{S}_p]{\frac{1}{n_1}+\frac{1}{n_2}}}\sim {t}_{\frac{\alpha }{2}\left({n}_1+{n}_2-2\right)} $$

$$ \mathrm{where}{S}_p=\sqrt{\frac{\left({n}_1-1\right){S}_1^2+\left({n}_2-1\right){S}_2^2}{n_1+{n}_2-2}} $$

with n₁ + n₂ − 2 degree of freedom.

Any significant value of the test statistic can lead us to the rejection of null hypothesis and concluded that air pollution in the country is significantly different during pandemic than before lockdown.

Data and computational environment

NASA presented MODIS locally available Land in 2000 as a feature of the Earth perception succession and information assortment with a practically worldwide inclusion of 10 km × 3 km field pixel scale at nadir (Duty et al. 2013). The equator is reached by MODIS instruments installed Land and Water around 10:30 and 13:30 nearby time, individually. Vaporized optical profundity information was gathered utilizing the dark blue calculation utilizing the MOD04 Level 2 Determination 6 item (Duty et al. 2013). The MODIS Transformation Toolbox (MCTK) has additionally been utilized for MODIS information pre-preparing. Geo-referring, steering, and spatial examination are finished using ArcMAPv10.2. The entire results reported in this investigation were carried out in the RStudio computational environment. For air pollution–related data, we used snow-ball sampling/reference sampling techniques, whereas for COVID-19 data, we used convenient sampling technique as COVID-19-related data is easily available on daily basis.

• The datasets collected were split into two subgroups over the following period: (1st January 2020 to 22nd March 2020).

• In a pandemic (23rd March 2020 to 31st December 2020).

The length of the lockdown is centered on Pakistan’s administration requests to authorize a cross country financial closure to forestall the dispersal of coronavirus through human-human correspondence. For the above mentioned time-frame, the information for PM_2.5 was aquired from AirNow is controlled in four urban communities and the capital of Pakistan at US international safe havens/department workplaces (Quetta, Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar, and Islamabad). For Quetta, Lahore, Peshawar, Karachi, and Islamabad, the standard midpoints of particulate issue, PM_2.5 (in μg/mc), and related air quality files were resolved. The rate decrease of PM_2.5 was estimated and the connected detail as indicated graphically in Fig. 5.

Computation and discussion

Deviation in aerosol optical depth

As far as both wellbeing impacts and radioactive compelling properties, the job of the particulate issue is surely known by PM_2.5. By the by, in both realities, the advancing bit of the globe needs satisfactory observational organizations. As air quality checking is expensive and needs reliable measures to support and run such observational organizations, Pakistan is no exemption (Khokhar and Yasmin 2018; Zeb et al. 2019). None of the public authority’s air quality observing stations has been dynamic since 2010, as indicated by the Monetary Study of Pakistan report (ESoP 2013). We thusly center around satellite estimations to fill this distance somewhat by giving practical long haul information assortment of air foreign substances, for example, airborne optical profundity (AOD), follow and ozone harming substances across these zones (Zeb et al. 2019; Gupta et al. 2020). AOD is a columnar amount and speaks to the termination of light because of the presence in the air of mist concentrates, permitting AOD to be taken as an intermediary for the particulate issue at surrounding levels. A few analyses have contemplated the relationship between PM_2.5 and AOD seen by satellite utilizing fine vaporized division and have indicated a solid association with both (e.g., Kumar et al. 2007; Singh et al. 2006; Khokhar 2006, 2017). Figure 4 shows a guide of 28 days of MODIS determined AOD and arrived at the midpoint of throughout the long-term 2017–2020. This shows the crumbled air quality and raised vaporized burdens over the locales facilitating anthropogenic exercises from ground level to the highest point of the environment.

Fig. 4

Satellite map of Pakistan representing average AOD level before pandemic during 2017–2020. Source: NASA (https://ladsweb.modaps.eosdis.nasa.gov/)

The AOD is high, especially in Pakistan’s thickly populated zones, for example, the urban areas that harbor the majority of Pakistan’s business are Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Lahore, and Karachi. Similarly, Fig. 5 reflects AOD in the nation until the date during the pandemic time frame (23 March to 31 December 2020). Across Pakistan, there is a huge distinction in AOD levels, as appeared in Fig 5. A huge decrease is found in the zones around the Indus delta with truly higher AOD levels. These results have strong support from paired Student’s t test presented in Appendix Tables 2 and 3. There is proof that air quality has profited by the pandemic, especially in the significant urban areas and the capital of Pakistan (e.g., Quetta, Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar, and Islamabad). It tends to be seen unmistakably from the insights in Fig. 6 (percent decrease). The most extreme decline is seen in the town of Peshawar, trailed by Karachi, Lahore, Quetta, and Islamabad, and, as appeared in Fig. 7.

Fig. 5

Satellite map of Pakistan representing average AOD level during coronavirus pandemic and difference among before and after. Source: data downloaded from NASA available at https://ladsweb.modaps.eosdis.nasa.gov/

Fig. 6

Presentation of reduction in ground-level PM_2.5 concentrations (ug/m³) for before and during lockdown periods. Source: fata downloaded from NASA available at https://ladsweb.modaps.eosdis.nasa.gov/

Fig. 7

Percentage reduction in AOD levels in major cities and capital of Pakistan during the socio-economic lockdown. Source: data downloaded from NASA available at https://ladsweb.modaps.eosdis.nasa.gov/

Deviations in PM_2.5 concentration

Additionally, during the COVID time (23^rd March to 31^st December 2020), huge abatements in-ground centralizations of PM2.5 were seen at 5 separate areas in the urban communities of Quetta, Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar, and Islamabad. In the city of Peshawar, 56% in the city of Lahore, trailed by Quetta 41%, Karachi 43%, and Islamabad 25%, the main decline of around 59% is noticed. These towns (Peshawar, Lahore, and Karachi) are among the world’s most sullied towns (WHO, 2019). Over the pandemic, this financial lockdown and shrewd lockdown have demonstrated success in decreasing the pace of PM_2.5, yet additionally, extraordinary air poisons, since these are co-radiated from a similar activity more often than not. The noticed upgrades in PM2.5 and improved air quality list (AQI) focus on Peshawar, Lahore, Quetta, Karachi, and Islamabad when the corona pandemic is found (Table 1). We statistically verified these results by employing two sample t-test and strongly reject the null hypothesis at 95% level of significance that the air pollution before and during coronavirus pandemic was the same. The qualification between the double-cross ranges (subgroups) can be seen when any organization (nearby/worldwide) quit during the financial lockdown, neighborhood travel was bolted, and stores, workplaces, instructive foundations, recreation parks, and shopping centers were completely shut. With confined long periods of administration causing colossal financial misfortunes, banks, markets, and drug stores remained open and made a huge mass. In one perspective, this entire circumstance delivered a huge financial mishap. On the opposite side, however, it had a huge helpful impact on air quality, enormous scope preservation of assets, and a similarly more modest conveyance of coronavirus.

Table 1 Representation of number of days PM_2.5 concentrations increased the Pak-NEQS guidelines, WHO, and AQI descriptors during both the periods of before and during lockdown in the selected cities of the country

Relationship between COVID-19, population, and polluted areas

In this way, something basic about these four urban areas is that they are generally vigorously populated; they are more inclined to the spread of coronavirus. There is an association between the engendering of coronavirus and thickly populated territories, as indicated by contemplate. Because of more prominent human-human correspondence, urban communities with wide populaces are blamed for giving a solid spread thickness. Just as some previous medical conditions, for example, smoking, cardiovascular breakdown, hypertension, diabetes, or corpulence, the time of individuals dwelling in an area is regularly a major factor (Florida 2020). Another connection between more noteworthy coronavirus spread and higher death rates in regions that were profoundly defiled before the pandemic has been set up. There is an 8% ascend in the death rate with an expansion of 1 μg/m³ of P.M_2.5 (95% certainty span), as per a report attempted in the USA (Wu et al. 2020). A comparable example was seen in Peshawar, Karachi, trailed by Lahore, Quetta, and Islamabad with a higher coronavirus spread power, as found in Fig 8. The numbers explicitly show that during lockout and time frame after lockdown, the colossal appropriation in these 5 urban communities can generally be identified with the way that these are urban areas with huge populace trouble and a higher human-human reach. Moreover, the most noteworthy level of causalities was allotted to the city of Peshawar, trailed by Karachi, Lahore, and Islamabad (recorded among the best 20 most dirtied urban areas on the planet by WHO 2016). Partially, it could be owing to an in-compelling lockout, yet it can likewise be identified with a more prominent weakness of the general population regularly exposed to higher measures of PM2.5 and other contamination comparative with the better zone populace. The number of fatalities and the rated pace of recuperation in these urban areas can be additionally checked, as found in the table in Fig. 8. It might likewise be estimated that expanded air quality not just will in general limit the occurrence of illness, yet additionally lessens the powerlessness (both contamination and death paces) of infection.

Fig. 8

Information about COVID-19-confirmed cases reported in major cities till 31^st December 2020. Data obtained from Ministry of National Health Services available at http://covid.gov.pk/

Pandemics of the coronavirus structure

This example has been seen far and wide when a few countries have shut approaching and friendly unfamiliar carriers, individuals have been approached to sit at home, and the utilization of engine vehicles has been significantly diminished. The propensities for utilization have moved by requires. All of this resulted in about -23% decrease in global CO₂ emissions by December 2020 as compared to the 2019 mainly just by the reduced use of transport all around the world It is the best drop in CO₂ levels that has been accounted forever. Numerous atmosphere researchers are pleased to see a particularly enormous decline in various poisons, including GHGs, in the climate. On the opposite side, numerous researchers are interested how much endeavor would need to be taken to diminish the emanations of GHGs to contain an unnatural weather change to 1.5°C before the finish of the twenty-first century. The investigation shows that lockout activities and measures are taken in 69 nations that contributed 97% of GHG discharges finished in a particularly abrupt drop in the centralization of CO₂. It is the primary eminent decrease since the Subsequent Universal War. Specktor (2020) finds that nations had a decrease in contamination by up to 26% exclusively. On the off chance that the shrewd lockout endures before the finish of June 2021, outflows overall are projected to diminish by around 10%. As per Benjamin Storrow’s (2020) and Storrow’s (2020) arrangement to diminish a worldwide temperature alteration to 1.5°C, this reduction is now short throughout the following decade by 7.6% every year.

Global indirect effects of COVID-19

About each country has been hit by coronavirus, and there are likewise results of this pandemic that cannot be straightforwardly noticed. The most immediate and away from coronavirus is on the prosperity of individuals, which is the world’s essential need. This pandemic has likewise explicitly affected the movement, production, the travel industry, school and office businesses, and so on, yet the roundabout impact of coronavirus on the environment has been created by the immediate effect on these areas. Some present moment and long haul results of Coronavirus are known to affect the atmosphere, for example, decreases in PM_2.5 and NO₂ focuses, diminishes in clamor outflows, and changes in variation methodologies, upgraded natural control software engineers, and better groundwork for disaster hazard the executives. Such adverse aberrant results, including diminished garbage removal rehearses impacts on normal cycles, and arising issues going up against ecological observing and atmosphere developers, have likewise emerged as an outcome of this pandemic. Such optional impacts could have long haul suggestions, for example, the impact of the most recent pandemic on the accomplishment of Feasible Advancement Objectives (SDGs) (Zambrano-Monserrate et al. 2020: Cheval et al. 2020).

Indirect impacts

Air quality

Unexpected abatements in monetary and mechanical exercises because of the lockdown brought about by coronavirus have brought about an overall lessening in ozone-depleting substance emanations. This outcome in a considerably sensible improvement like the climate and the atmosphere. Air quality is predominantly subject to human exercises, as the lockdown has prompted a critical diminishing in air contamination in the urban communities of Italy, China, and New York, and a huge abatement in GHG emanations has been anticipated for the rest of the year. Aeronautics was one of the enterprises incredibly affected by this pandemic. Avionics represents 3–5% of worldwide CO₂ and 1–2% of the climate’s all-out ozone-depleting substance discharges. The Global Air Transport Affiliation (IATA) has extended a reduction of roughly 48% in flying in 2020. Studies have indicated that the aeronautics area will take some time before getting back to business as usual, even after lockdown. This leads by implication to a lessening in CO₂ and abatement in everyday temperature midpoints because of decreased outflows of GHGs (Ali et al. 2021).

For instance, in this pandemic lockdown, Milan had 21% less normal NO₂ levels for the 7 days of 16–22 March 2020 contrasted with the exact 7-day stretch of 2019, the grouping of NO2 additionally diminished. In contrast with that week in 2019, Bergamo, Barcelona, Madrid, and Lisbon encountered a diminishing of 47%, 55%, 41%, and 51%, individually, in normal NO₂ fixations for the very week in 2020 (Cheval et al. 2020). NO₂ levels diminished to around 22.8 μg/m³ and 12.9 μg/m³, individually, in Wuhan and China (Zambrano-Monserrate et al. 2020).

Pollution from shipping and noise

One of the significant wellsprings of both ozone-depleting substance discharges and commotion contamination is the vehicle business. As the administrations of a few nations delivered closure and isolate requests to shield residents from this pandemic, there was a considerable diminishing in rush hour gridlock stream on the streets in 2020, as indicated by the consequences of Cheval et al., for instance, the traffic of trucks and vehicles in Vienna was decreased to 49% and 51%. This led, not exclusively, to a lessening in GHG contamination, yet additionally to a significant reduction in the clamor level made by a horn blaring and different cars. These drop-in commotion levels additionally finished in expanded observation of seismic waves and zones defenseless against tremors and the seismographic information were emphatically reinforced.

The pandemic’s effect on water bodies

As indicated by Cheval et al., inferable from the coronavirus pandemic in 2020, there was a run of the mill methods for transport in spots where sailing travel was done, for example, as no such drifting ways were utilized, Spain, Italy, Bangladesh, and various travel industry objections encountered a prompt valuable impact on water sources by lessening water tainting. The suspended particulate issue (SPM) in a freshwater lake, Vembanad Pool of India, was analyzed by Yunus et al. (2020) to see if under these lockout conditions there was a distinction in SPM focus. The discoveries uncovered that there was a 36% drop in SPM comparative with earlier years’ focuses.

Direct impact of COVID-19

Ecological system and coronavirus

An association can be seen, from a natural perspective, between our locale and the climate. Because of the living space loss of a few plants, the multiplication of presented species, and movements in the circulation structure of species, coronavirus is the result of temperature changes in the climate. To think about the association between the flare-up of pandemics and creature markets, around 300 creature insurance associations composed a letter to the World Wellbeing Association (WHO). Another perspective that raises the contact of people with wild creatures is deforestation, which may regularly add to the spread of any unfamiliar infection or life forms that can have a particularly wrecking sway as set off by this pandemic of coronavirus and others before it. As indicated by Ali et al. (2021) and Cheval et al. (2020). The pandemic has affected natural life study and field practice, which has added to the decrease of exploration rehearses that have repercussions for the endurance of biodiversity and biological systems. This has finished in the drawn-out common sense of various creatures the board projects being surveyed, for example, Asset for the Worldwide Atmosphere.

Activities for waste disposal

Numerous individuals across the globe are in separation and live at home due to the stature of family squander creation. Medical clinic squander, alongside homegrown waste, has additionally risen. As indicated by the Cheval et al. 2020 suggestion, as the hour of the lockout in this pandemic is rising, the disposing of individual defensive gear (PPEs) on the side of the road and along the shoreline is expanding. A news report revealed in Sunrise tends to the expanded testimony of waste in Karachi, Pakistan. For very nearly 2 months, the Sindh Climate Insurance Office (SEPA) has been inert, adding to unreasonable medical clinic squander and unattended homegrown waste on the town’s roads. The article takes note that so far no appropriate removal framework has been set up for coronavirus waste and none of the clinics is given any sort of direction to battle this issue. SEPA commits the reusing of the medical clinic or any dangerous waste, as delineated by Ilyas 2020, with the goal that none of the general population is hurt by it; anyway the office has been inadequate, and no such advances have been taken to date.

COVID-19’s long-term impact on SDGs

The current situation with coronavirus is probably going to affect likely ecological and financial systems on a worldwide premise. “Changing our Reality: the 2030 Vision for Economic Development” involves 17 SDGs zeroed explicitly on guaranteeing correspondence and neediness easing by 2030. Because of coronavirus, these SDGs have had an unmistakable effect and are anticipated to go through long haul outcomes too. A significant number of these SDGs are explicitly attached to the prosperity of metropolitan focuses and networks. Given the consequences of existing conditions that include openness, shortcomings, and solidness seen during this worldwide fiasco uncovered by S.M Ali et al. (2021) and Cheval et al. (2020), the application and thought of this plan could be checked.

Environmental and climate service control

COVID-19 highlighted that greater preparedness for monitoring environmental and climate resources had to be accomplished. The pandemic has increased the need for access to real-time and long-term data that will help officials recognize the multiple reactions that are taking place during the epidemic in different fields. Following the recommendation of Cheval et al., the sustainability concerns found by this pandemic in 2020 have prompted environmental scientists to improve the capacity of surveillance. Due to the reduced efficiency and quantity of aircraft weather measurements, the pandemic has greatly impacted the development and availability of weather prediction results. In addition to ocean and remote region observations, environment systems were often biased by this pandemic. Better control may aid research and classify the dissemination of this novel COVID-19 in many countries. In the future, the methods learned today, lessons, and evidence from the current will be used to tackle the dissemination of such a disease effectively.

Function of the atmosphere in COVID-19 spread

There have been a few historical instances where the propagation of viruses in Europe, such as the West Nile virus, has been correlated with meteorological factors, such as climate and temperature fluctuations. This is why researchers are interested in researching the relationship between COVID-19 spread and meteorological factors, i.e., increases in temperature and other changes in climate conditions, such as humidity. The viruses spread rapidly from China to regions with colder weather patterns, such as Europe and North America, following the initial spread of the COVID-19 virus in mid-December. In his latest study on the initial distribution, Mazhar et al. (2020) illustrated that COVID-19, like pneumonia, often triggers respiratory disease strongly related to differences in weather and environment conditions between various areas. Research was undertaken in China investigating the association between changes in temperature and COVID-19 showing that temperature was an environmental catalyst in China for the outbreak of this pandemic. There is an opposite association between the two, according to Shi et al. (2020), i.e., elevated temperature resulted in a reduced rate of spread, the severity of the epidemic, and rate of infections. To research the spread of related respiratory diseases such as influenza and extreme acute respiratory syndrome, other meteorological parameters are also significant (SARS). The association between the mortality rate induced by COVID-19 and the various environmental factors, i.e., different temperatures and humidity, was discussed in a report in China. Ma et al. (2020), although anti-correlated with relative humidity, demonstrated a favorable association between the death rate and the diurnal temperature scale. To retrain the dissemination of COVID-19 and other precautionary steps, it is also mandatory to evaluate the possible influences of environmental parameters. No conclusive relation could be identified between the COVID-19 spread and the temperature in Pakistan, unlike the case of China. No substantial association was identified between the distribution of COVID-19 and temperature fluctuations, according to usable datasets collected at the provincial level from the Government of Pakistan’s COVID-19 portal and weather records. First, there was a comparatively smaller distribution of COVID-19 in Pakistan, and the socio-economic lockout was effectively tackled. Second, that was largely attributed to increased contact with humans and humans. However, the distribution of COVID-19 was found to be higher in condensate communities with high concentrations of contaminants, such as the major cities of Pakistan and other areas of the world listed in this report.

COVID-19 is a respiratory disorder, according to Frontera 2020, and there is a proven connection between the spread of (past) respiratory diseases in areas subject to high levels of air pollution. It may be hypothesized that the transmission of COVID-19 induced further health effects derived from this pandemic in regions where the pollutant concentrations were greater than in other places. Under the socio-economic lockdown since the COVID-19 epidemic, a sharp drop in pollutant emissions (GHG and other toxic gases) was observed, and such a fall in global emissions has not been observed in the past 25 years. This reduction in global pollution may have implications for the earth as a whole, creating a future cooling impact. This relies, though, on the amounts of carbon dioxide and other ambient greenhouse gases currently accumulating. There are still chances that once the global lockdown is removed, the decreased emissions would plateau again and be higher than before as factories and industries continue to offset their losses from expanded operations.

Global change and the COVID-19 pandemic also provided new doors for climate-related study as a consequence of this remarkable reduction in pollution. While the rising impacts of climate change have long called for global emissions mitigation, this pandemic has cut global emissions more effectively than ever in the past. To fight this pandemic, several nations, including Pakistan, have taken precautionary steps and implemented emergency reforms. It is unclear, however, if this pandemic would further decrease long-term carbon pollution and thereby trigger a cooling impact, or if the planet will recover to its previous Sheikh 2020 pollution concentrations.

Countries should gleam from their battle against the COVID-19 virus and integrate it into the fight against climate change in several respects. It also encouraged global societies to consider regular socio-economic lockdowns in places with higher carbon emissions, to achieve the Paris Agreement’s defined goals. There is, therefore, a greater need for researchers to focus on it and provide the strength and frequency of smart lockdowns with optimal and mathematical solutions, without undermining socio-economic growth.

COVID-19 and the economy of Pakistan

The global economy has been greatly impacted by this pandemic, and its unequal consequences have been felt globally, with certain nations becoming more affected than others. Economically, before the forced lockout, Pakistan was still under strain, further exasperating the crisis. Regular wagers and micro- and medium-sized enterprises experienced the most serious injury. Whereas many sectors, such as the textile industry, were considered the backbone of the country’s economy, they were also badly affected, as several textile import orders were cancelled during the COVID-19 time. The unemployment rate has risen, although economic development has steadily declined. Pakistan’s GDP growth in 2018 was 5.8%, and by the end of 2020, it plummeted to 0.95% and is projected to decrease further owing to the financial limitation placed by the lockdown of COVID-19, as exposed by Saleem (2020).

As stated earlier, due to disturbances in their everyday operations and the restricted class of customers available, small- and medium-sized companies were most badly impacted. Because of the smart socio-economic lockdown in the world, the onset of COVID-19 and the subsequent collapse of these small businesses have greatly affected the economy at large. Owing to significant casualties during this pandemic, several of these organizations are not funded. As they raise the job ratio and bring money to the nation that is not received from the outside, these small enterprises are essential to a country’s economy. These small- and medium-sized companies amount to around 60% of GDP in Pakistan. These are present in Pakistan’s urban as well as rural areas. Small- and medium-sized companies are key players in Pakistan’s farming, wholesale, distribution, and transport markets. As illustrated by Shafi et al. (2020), these firms face financial difficulties, delays in the supply chain and requests, and consumer ratio decline.

Sustainability in the presence of COVID-19

In any conceivable way, whether it is societal, economic, or health linked, this pandemic has adversely affected the planet. Several nations are taking action to reduce harmful impacts. Likewise, initiatives have been taken by the Government of Pakistan to safeguard the nation from socio-economic setbacks. The Humanitarian Response Plan for Pakistan’s COVID-19 pandemic was designed to assess the potential impacts of this epidemic and possible mechanisms for managing and resolving them. Here are some of the salient characteristics:

• a. The government has issued a monitoring and inspection procedure for persons at all forms of entry points in reaction to the effects on public health.

• b. Passengers are expected to fill in a health declaration form (HDF) before flying.

• c. For sample collections, several mobile labs are being developed at various locations in different cities.

• d. The laboratories in major cities are assigned to obtain samples from suspected COVID-19 patients according to the correct biosafety criteria.

The Government of Pakistan has set up a multi-sectorial support fund for COVID-19 problems, in reaction to the effects on the economic system.

• 1. PKR 1.35 trillion has been allocated by the Government of Pakistan (GoP) to combat the concerns and problems faced by COVID-19.

• 2. $1.3 billion in relief for daily wagers and laborers.

• 3. $800 million for the development of agricultural and SME relief.

• 4. Prices are lowered by 15 rupees for gas, diesel, kerosene, and diesel oil per liter.

• 5. $ 800 million for producers and exporters.

• 6. $1.79 billion this season to procure 8.2 million tons of wheat.

• 7. $95 million in tax relief to include relief for wellness and nutritional supplies.

• 8. For the Utility Stores Company (USC) to have 500 million dollars for subsidized prices provide essential food supplies, including rice, pulses, sugar, and cooking oil.

• 9. $700 million for the provision of residual/energy fund aid.

In addition to the measures taken above, the National Preparation, Preparing and Evaluation Initiative for the Mitigation of Additional Losses proposed by OCHA (2020) is underway.

Conclusion and implementations

Both satellite and ground-based measurements showed that during the coronavirus pandemic, air quality and environment, in particular PM2.5, levels were adequately improved across Pakistan. As a consequence of the socio-economic lockdown and smart lockdown implemented by the government of Pakistan to date, major changes have been observed in the calculated concentration of PM_2.5 levels at Quetta, 47%; Lahore, 61%; Peshawar, 58%; Karachi, 48%; and Islamabad, 27%. However, the poor recovery rate and comparatively better tertiary level medical services compared to the rest of Pakistan suggest that as the populace is more often subjected to very high levels of PM_2.5 and other air contaminants such as PM₁₀, CO₂, NO₂, and O₃, the effect in these cities is the largest amount of COVID-19 cases that can be due to high population figures. It may also be hypothesized that the population residing in large cities (often subjected to a higher degree of PM_2.5) is more vulnerable than the population living in regions with lower levels of PM_2.5 exposures. Limiting socio-economic practices can also result in an economic deadlock; however, by growing the costs of diseases born by subsidized health institutes in Pakistan, it can increase air and atmospheric quality and relieve the economic pressure of states indirectly. Nevertheless, to answer a rational issue, there is a stronger need for commitment and research; how long is a socio-economic lockout required to balance economic practices and to breathe clean air and alleviate climate change?

Recommendations and implications

Based on the exploration of this research, we have the following recommendations. It is advisable that:

• 1. Proper measures should be implemented to guarantee the protection of the public’s welfare.

• 2. Proper control measures must be placed in place to avoid the large and rapid spread of COVID-19, taking into account the position of meteorological and other variables.

• 3. Since air pollution may be related to the widespread and consequent morbidity of COVID-19, the government must take steps to ensure that the levels of air pollution are within acceptable limits.

• 4. In order to establish whether COVID-19 events or fatalities are correlated with evolving environmental factors, more study must be undertaken.

Policies that safeguard citizens and the climate at the same time should be in effect. Because COVID-19 has impacted almost every industry, policies should be as realistic and simple to enforce as they have the least socio-economic growth consequences. Any of the following policies that could be effective in minimizing COVID-19’s results are as follows:

The government should take action to hold anthropogenic pollution in place for the future, as the lockout has proved to be successful for our atmosphere and to limit the spread of COVID-19. For that function, any of the following measures may be employed:

• Also after COVID-19, the government could adopt a smart lockdown to control the intensity of anthropogenic pollution under allowable limits.

• Operating periods can be fixed by factories and businesses and, in particular, set off at peak pollution hours.

• No additional provision/banning of any polluting factories near residential areas as they create smoke and other contaminants that may be detrimental to individuals with some respiratory condition.

The following measures can be taken in order to minimize the effect of COVID-19 on companies:

• To analyze, on a small or large scale, the operational and financial effects of COVID-19 on their company.

• To better sustain the workings of the supply chain, strategies for controlling the distribution of cash through the supply chain must be supervised and subsidized.

According to Sabina Softi´c, many business contracts and commitments have become unsustainable for small businesses by 2020, and in order to minimize the adverse effects of these contracts, it is necessary to implement as soon as possible policy interventions for the provision of subsidies and tax relief.

Future research work

Many research topics that one may expect in potential studies are brought up through the exploration of this research. As of September 2020, the number of COVID-19 cases in Pakistan has risen dramatically. It is therefore mandatory to analyze daily COVID-19 cases on finer spatial and temporal scales in major cities of Pakistan and to find out if the key factor was any existing link to meteorological conditions and/or smart socio-economic lockdown, as was not the case in neighboring countries. In addition, the transmission of COVID-19 and consequent morbidities such as respiratory and cardiovascular disorders and their correlation as a driving force with an elevated degree of air quality must be discussed.

Appendix

Table 2 Paired samples statistics

Table 3 Paired sample t-test