Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Contributions of word-level and verbal skills to written expression: comparison of learners who speak English as a first (L1) and second language (L2)

  • Published:
Reading and Writing Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The study investigated the role of word-level and verbal skills in writing quality of learners who spoke English as a first (L1) and second (L2) language. One hundred and sixty-eight L1 and L2 learners (M = 115.38 months, SD = 3.57 months) participated in the study. All testing was conducted in English. There was a statistically significant L1 advantage on the measures of writing quality and verbal skills (i.e., vocabulary, verbal working memory, and semantic fluency) but not on word-level skills (i.e., spelling and word reading). Results from the multi-sample structural equation modeling analysis showed that the word-level and verbal skills made independent contributions to writing quality of L1 and L2 learners and the strength of these relationships was invariant (equivalent) across the two samples. The educational implications of research on L2 learners who are learning to write in a majority language were discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. It is important to note that there is a significant body of research on biliterate bilingual learners’ writing development in their first and second languages and related cross-linguistic influences (for reviews, see Berman & Verhoeven, 2002; Fitzgerald, 2006; Zecker, 2004). Within the context of the present study, the focus was on L2 learners who were learning to write in a majority language.

  2. The analysis was repeated by fixing the verbal working memory or semantic fluency intercepts to be equal across the two language groups, which yielded a marginally nonsignificant model fit difference for verbal working memory, Δχ 2 (1) = 2.140, p = .144, ΔCFI = .002, and a statistically significant model fit difference for semantic fluency, Δχ 2 (1) = 2.303, p = .129, ΔCFI = .003. Hence, verbal working memory seems to have also contributed to the language group differences in writing quality levels but its effect was smaller than that of vocabulary knowledge.

References

  • Abbot, R. D., & Berninger, V. (1993). Structural equation modeling of relationships among developmental skills and writing skills in primary- and intermediary-grade writers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 478–508. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.85.3.478.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abbott, R. D., Berninger, V., & Fayol, M. (2010). Longitudinal relationships of levels of language in writing and between writing and reading in grades 1 to 7. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 281–298. doi:10.1037/a0019318.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abu-Rabia, S., & Siegel, L. (2002). Reading, syntactic, orthographic, and working memory skills of bilingual Arabic-English speaking Canadian children. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 31, 661–678. doi:10.1023/A:1021221206119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arab-Moghaddam, N., & Senechal, M. (2001). Orthographic and phonological processing skills in reading and spelling in Persian/English bilinguals. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 25, 140–147. doi:10.1080/01650250042000320.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arbuckle, J. L. (2010). IBM SPSS Amos 19. Crawfordvile, FL, USA: Amos Development Cooperation.

    Google Scholar 

  • August, D., & Shanahan, T. (2010). Response to a review and update on developing literacy in second-language learners: Report of the national literacy panel on language minority children and youth. Journal of Literacy Research, 42, 341–348. doi:10.1080/1086296x.2010.503745.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Babayiğit, S. (2012). The role of oral language skills in reading and listening comprehension of text: A comparison of monolingual (L1) and bilingual (L2) speakers of English language. Journal of Research in Reading. Advance online publication. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9817.2012.01538.x.

  • Babayiğit, S., & Stainthorp, R. (2010). Component processes of early reading, spelling, and narrative writing skills in Turkish: A longitudinal study. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 23, 539–568. doi:10.1007/s11145-009-9173-y.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Babayiğit, S., & Stainthorp, R. (2011). Modeling the relationships between cognitive-linguistic skills and literacy skills: New insights from a transparent orthography. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103, 169–189. doi:10.1037/a0021671.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bedore, L. M., & Peña, E. D. (2008). Assessment of bilingual children for identification of language impairment: Current findings and implications for practice. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 11, 1–29. doi:10.2167/beb392.0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1987). The psychology of written composition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berman, R. A., & Verhoeven, L. (2002). Cross-linguistic perspectives on the development of text-production abilities: Speech and writing. Written Language & Literacy, 5, 1–43. doi:10.1075/wll.5.1.02ber.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V., Abbott, R. D., Swanson, H. L., Lovitt, D., Trivedi, P., Lin, S.-J., et al. (2010). Relationship of word- and sentence-level working memory to reading and writing in second, fourth, and sixth grade. Language, Speech, and Hearing, Services in Schools, 41, 179–193. doi:10.1044/0161-1461(2009/08-0002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V., & Amtmann, D. (2003). Preventing written expression disabilities through early and continuing assessment and intervention for handwriting and/or spelling problems: Research into practice. In H. L. Swanson, K. Harris, & S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of learning disabilities (pp. 345–363). New York, NY: The Guildford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V., & Graham, S. (1998). Language by hand: A synthesis of a decade of research on handwriting. Handwriting Review, 12, 11–25. Retrieved from http://www.nha-handwriting.org.uk/publications/annual-journal.

  • Berninger, V., & Winn, W. D. (2006). Implications of advancements in brain research and technology for writing development, writing instruction, and educational evolution. In A. MacArthur, S. Graham, & J. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Handbook of writing research (pp. 94–114). London, UK: Guildford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V., Yates, C., Cartwright, A., Rutberg, J., Remy, E., & Abbot, R. (1992). Lower-level developmental skills in beginning writing. Reading & Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 4, 257–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, D. V. M., & Clarkson, B. (2003). Written language as a window into residual language deficits: A study of children with persistent and residual speech and language impairments. Cortex, 39, 215–237. doi:10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70106-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cameron, L., & Besser, S. (2004). Writing in English as an additional language at key stage 2 (Report No. 586) London, Department for Education and Skills. Retrieved from Department for Education and Skills website: https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/standard/publicationDetail/Page1/RR586.

  • Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9, 233–255. doi:10.1207/s15328007sem0902_5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • CILT, the National Centre for Languages (operating as part of the CfBT Education Trust). (2011). Annual school census: Language data collection. Retrieved from CILT the National Centre for Languages website: http://www.cilt.org.uk/home/research_and_statistics/statistics/languages_in_the_population/annual_school_census.aspx.

  • Da Fontoura, H. A., & Siegel, L. S. (1995). Reading, syntactic, and working memory skills of bilingual Portuguese-English Canadian children. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 7, 139–153. doi:10.1007/BF01026951.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Department for Education and Skills. (2006). Ethnicity and education: The evidence on minority ethnic pupils aged 5-16 2006 ed. (Ref.: 0208-2006DOM-EN). Retrieved from Institute of Education, University of London, Digital Education Resource Archive website: http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/6306/.

  • Dockrell, J. E., & Connelly, V. (2009). The impact of oral language skills on the production of written text. British Journal of Educational Psychology Monograph Series II, Number 6-Teaching and Learning Writing, 1(1), 45–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dockrell, J., Lindsay, G., & Connelly, V. (2009). The impact of specific language impairment on adolescents’ written text. Exceptional Children, 75, 427–446.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Droop, M., & Verhoeven, L. (2003). Language proficiency and reading ability in first- and second-language learners. Reading Research Quarterly, 38, 78–103. doi:10.1598/RRQ.38.1.4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, L. M., Dunn, L. M., Whetton, C., & Burley, J. (1997). The British picture vocabulary scale (2nd ed.). London, UK: NFER-Nelson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Echevarria, J., Short, D., & Powers, K. (2006). School reform and standards-based education: A model for English-language learners. The Journal of Educational Research, 99, 195–211. doi:10.3200/JOER.99.4.195-211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fey, E. D., Catts, H., Proctor-Williams, K., Toblin, J. B., & Zhang, X. (2004). Oral and written story composition skills of children with language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 47, 1301–1318. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2004/098.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald, J. (2006). Multilingual writing in preschool through 12th grade. In A. MacArthur, S. Graham, & J. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Handbook of writing research (pp. 337–354). London, UK: Guilford press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flower, L. S., & Hayes, J. R. (1980). The dynamics of composing: Making plans and juggling constraints. In L. W. Gregg & E. R. Steinberg (Eds.), Cognitive processes in writing (pp. 31–50). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foster, H. (2007). Single Word Reading Test 6-16. London, UK: GL Assessment.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gathercole, S. E., Pickering, S. J., Ambridge, B., & Wearing, H. (2004). The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age. Developmental Psychology, 40, 177–190. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gillam, R. B., & Johnston, J. R. (1992). Spoken and written language relationships in language/learning-impaired and normally achieving school-age children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 35, 1303–1315. Retrieved from http://jslhr.asha.org/cgi/content/abstract/35/6/1303.

  • Goodrich, J. M., Lonigan, C. J., & Farver, J. M. (2013). Do early literacy skills in children’s first language promote development of skills in their second language? An experimental evaluation of transfer. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105, 414–426. doi:10.1037/a0031780.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gottardo, A., & Mueller, J. (2009). Are first- and second-language factors related in predicting second-language reading comprehension? A study of Spanish-speaking children acquiring English as a second language from first to second grade. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 330–344. doi:10.1037/a0014320.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gough, P. B., Hoover, W. A., & Peterson, C. L. (1996). Some observations on a simple view of reading. In J. Oakhill & C. Cornoldi (Eds.), Reading comprehension difficulties: Processes and interventions (pp. 1–13). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham, S., Berninger, V., Abbot, R. D., Abbot, S. P., & Whitaker, D. (1997). Role of mechanics in composing of elementary school students: A new methodological approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 170–182. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.89.1.170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, S., & Hebert, M. (2011). Writing to read: A meta-analysis of the impact of writing and writing instruction on reading. Harvard Educational Review, 81, 710–744. Retrieved from http://hepg.metapress.com/content/T2K0M13756113566.

  • Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2006). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle and high school. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellence in Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, J. R. (2011). Kinds of knowledge-telling: Modeling early writing development. Journal of Writing Research, 3, 73–92. Retrieved from http://jowr.org/articles/vol3_2/JoWR_2011_vol3_nr2_Hayes.pdf.

  • Hoover, W. A., & Gough, P. B. (1990). The simple view of reading. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 2, 127–160. doi:10.1007/bf00401799.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson, J. M., Whiteley, H. E., Smith, C. D., & Connors, L. (2003). The developmental progression of comprehension-related skills in children learning EAL. Journal of Research in Reading, 26, 19–32. doi:10.1111/1467-9817.261003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, S. M., Myhill, D. A., & Bailey, T. (2012). Grammar for writing? An investigation of the effects of contextualised grammar teaching on students’ writing. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s11145-012-9416-1.

  • Kieffer, M. (2011). Before and after third grade: Longitudinal evidence for the shifting role of socioeconomic status in reading growth. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 1–22. doi:10.1007/s11145-011-9339-2.

  • Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). London, UK: The Guildford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lanauze, M., & Snow, C. (1989). The relation between first-and second-language writing skills: Evidence from Puerto Rican elementary school children in bilingual programs. Linguistics and Education, 1, 323–339. doi:10.1016/s0898-5898(89)80005-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lesaux, N., Geva, E., Koda, K., Siegel, L., & Shanahan, T. (2006a). Development of literacy. In D. August & T. Shanahan (Eds.), Developing literacy in second-language learners (pp. 75–122). New Jersey, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lesaux, N., Lipka, O., & Siegel, L. (2006b). Investigating cognitive and linguistic abilities that influence the reading comprehension skills of children from diverse linguistic backgrounds. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 19, 99–131. doi:10.1007/s11145-005-4713-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lesaux, N. K., Rupp, A. A., & Siegel, L. S. (2007). Growth in reading skills of children from diverse linguistic backgrounds: Findings from a 5-year longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 821–834. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.4.821.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mackie, C., Dockrell, J., & Lindsay, G. (2013). An evaluation of the written texts of children with SLI: The contributions of oral language, reading and phonological short-term memory. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 26, 865–888. doi:10.1007/s11145-012-9396-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCutchen, D. (2000). Knowledge, processing, and working memory: Implications for a theory of writing. Educational Psychologist, 35, 13–23. doi:10.1207/S15326985EP3501_3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCutchen, D. (2011). From novice to expert: Implications of language skills and writing-relevant knowledge for memory during the development of writing skill. Journal of Writing Research, 3, 51–68. Retrieved from http://www.jowr.org/articles/vol3_1/JoWR_2011_vol3_nr1_McCutchen.pdf.

  • Meade, A. W., Johnson, E. C., & Braddy, P. W. (2008). Power and sensitivity of alternative fit indices in tests of measurement invariance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 568–592. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.93.3.568.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Melby-Lervåg, M., & Lervåg, A. (2011). Cross-linguistic transfer of oral language, decoding, phonological awareness and reading comprehension: A meta-analysis of the correlational evidence. Journal of Research in Reading, 34, 114–135. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9817.2010.01477.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nakamoto, J., Lindsey, K., & Manis, F. (2007). A longitudinal analysis of English language learners’ word decoding and reading comprehension. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 20, 691–719. doi:10.1007/s11145-006-9045-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olinghouse, N. (2008). Student- and instruction-level predictors of narrative writing in third-grade students. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 21, 3–26. doi:10.1007/s11145-007-9062-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olinghouse, N., & Graham, S. (2009). The relationship between the discourse knowledge and the writing performance of elementary-grade students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 402. doi:10.1037/a0015586.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olinghouse, N., & Leaird, J. (2009). The relationship between measures of vocabulary and narrative writing quality in second- and fourth-grade students. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 22, 545–565. doi:10.1007/s11145-008-9124-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olinghouse, N., & Wilson, J. (2013). The relationship between vocabulary and writing quality in three genres. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 26, 45–65. doi:10.1007/s11145-012-9392-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perfetti, C. A. (1997). The Psycholinguistics of spelling and reading. In C. A. Perfetti, L. Rieben, & M. Fayol (Eds.), Learning to spell: Research, theory, and practice across languages (pp. 21–38). London, UK: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pickering, S. J., & Gathercole, S. E. (2001). Working memory test battery for children. London, UK: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, G., Mohammed, S. S., & Vaughn, S. (2010). Reading achievement across three language groups: Growth estimates for overall reading and reading subskills obtained with the early childhood longitudinal survey. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 668–686. doi:10.1037/a0018983668.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Short, D. J., Fidelman, C. G., & Louguit, M. (2012). Developing academic language in English language learners through sheltered instruction. TESOL Quarterly, 46, 334–361. doi:10.1002/tesq.20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stainthorp, R., & Rauf, N. (2009). An investigation of the influence of the transcription skills of handwriting and spelling on the quality of text writing by girls and boys in key stage 2. Handwriting Today, 8, 8–13. Retrieved from http://www.nha-handwriting.org.uk/publications/annual-journal.

  • Statistical First Release. (2012a). Schools and pupils and their characteristics (Ref: SFR10/2012). Retrieved from Department for Education website: http://www.education.gov.uk/rsgateway/DB/SFR/s001071/index.shtml.

  • Statistical First Release. (2012b). Phonics screening check and national curriculum assessments at key stage 1 in England 2011/12 (Ref: SFR21/2012). Retrieved from Department for Education website: http://www.education.gov.uk/rsgateway/DB/SFR/s001086/index.shtml.

  • Strand, S. (2008). Minority ethnic pupils in the longitudinal study of young people in England extension report on performance in public examinations at age 16. Department for Children, Schools, and Families (RR029). London: Institute of Education, University of Warwick. Retrieved from Department for Education and Skills website: http://www.dfes.gov.uk/research/data/uploadfiles/DCSF-RR029.pdf.

  • Swanson, H. L., & Berninger, V. (1996a). Individual differences in children’s working memory and writing skills. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 63, 358–385. Retrieved from http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ap/ch/1996/00000063/00000002/art00054.

  • Swanson, H. L., & Berninger, V. (1996b). Individual differences in children’s writing: A function of working memory or reading or both processes? Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 8, 357–383. doi:10.1007/BF00395114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tunmer, W. E., & Chapman, J. W. (2012). The simple view of reading redux: Vocabulary knowledge and the independent components hypothesis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 45, 453–466. doi:10.1177/0022219411432685.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vandenberg, R. J., & Lance, C. E. (2000). A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: Suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 3, 4–70. doi:10.1177/109442810031002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vanderberg, R., & Swanson, H. L. (2007). Which components of working memory are important in the writing process? Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 20, 721–752. doi:10.1007/s11145-006-9046-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verheyden, L., Van den Branden, K., Rijlaarsdam, G., Van den Bergh, H., & De Maeyer, S. (2010). Written narrations by 8- to 10-year-old Turkish pupils in Flemish primary education: A follow-up of seven text features. Journal of Research in Reading, 33, 20–38. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9817.2009.01430.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vernon, P. E. (2006). Graded word spelling test, third edition revised and restandardised by Colin McCarty and Mary Crumpler. London, UK: Hodder Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (2005). Wechsler individual achievement test (2nd UK edition). London, UK: Harcourt.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zecker, L. B. (2004). Learning to read and write in two languages. In C. A. Stone, E. R. Silliman, B. J. Ehren, & K. Apel (Eds.), Handbook of language and literacy: Development and disorders (pp. 248–265). New York, NY: The Guildford Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The study was supported by a grant from the University of the West of England (Bristol), awarded to the author. The author thanks Professors Robin Means, Sue Roulstone, Jeanine Treffers-Daller, and Dr. Amanda Longley for their support of the study, and Hardeep Adams, Chris Chant, and Jessica Parry for their assistance with the data entry and scoring. Special thanks also go the children and teachers who participated.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of the West of England, Bristol, UK

    Selma Babayiğit

Authors
  1. Selma Babayiğit
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Selma Babayiğit.

Appendix

Appendix

See Table 4.

Table 4 Mean differences between the L1 and L2 samples
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Babayiğit, S. Contributions of word-level and verbal skills to written expression: comparison of learners who speak English as a first (L1) and second language (L2). Read Writ 27, 1207–1229 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-013-9482-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-013-9482-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation