Abstract
The study examined the efficacy of an intensive form of professional development (PD) for building the knowledge of first-grade teachers in the areas of phonological awareness and phonics. The PD featured frequent in-class support from highly knowledgeable mentors for one school year, in addition to an introductory two-day summer institute and monthly workshops. Pre- and post-assessment of participants on a Teacher Knowledge Survey (TKS) indicated weak knowledge of phonological awareness and phonics concepts prior to PD and large, significant gains in each area by year-end. In addition, to investigate factors potentially associated with teachers’ responses to training, a Teacher Attitude Survey (TAS) was administered before and after the PD. The TAS measured teachers’ attitudes regarding PD, external and internal motivation to participate, intentions to actively engage in learning and implementing new instructional methods, sense of self-efficacy as reading instructors, and premises about reading instruction (e.g., about whole language). Attitudes on a subset of these factors, teachers’ initial knowledge scores on the TKS, and years of teaching experience (estimated by age) accounted for significant portions of the variance in performance on the TKS after training.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Terminology regarding phonological awareness and phoneme awareness is not always used consistently in the literature. Here we follow the definitions specified in Scarborough & Brady (2002). In that glossary, phonological awareness is defined as a broad umbrella term encompassing all levels of awareness of the phonological structure of spoken words, including rhymes, syllables, onset-rimes, and individual phonemes. Awareness of the first three structural units more recently is being referred to as phonological sensitivity, while the term phoneme awareness is restricted to awareness of individual phonemes. At the phoneme level, development of phonemes commonly progresses from awareness of initial and final phonemes, to medial phonemes, to awareness of the individual phonemes in consonant clusters (e.g., at the beginning and end of a word such as ‘blast’).
Vowel spelling patterns, notably variable at the letter level, become quite predictable if what follows the vowel is considered. Six syllable patterns are commonly described: closed (VC: at, cup), open (V: me, I), silent-e (VCe: tape, hike), vowel team (VV: coat, boy), r-controlled (Vr: harp, cord) and consonant-le (Cle: maple, bugle) (see Henry 2003; Moats 2000). Cheney & Cohen (2000) further divide vowel team syllables into two subtypes: talkers (e.g., coat, bait) and whiners (e.g., ow, boy), an approach we adopted in our MRIn PD.
The TKS included an additional 14 items that have been dropped from the present analyses. With the goal of reducing the number of items both for psychometric purposes and to avoid over-representing a particular concept (e.g., counting phonemes in spoken words), ten items were dropped. Another four items were eliminated because, upon further reflection, we felt they were poor questions (e.g., had ambiguous wording). Therefore, from the original 74 items, the number included in the present analyses was reduced to 60 items.
Of the 57 participants, 11 (19%) had partial data. Each of these 11 individuals had missing data for one or two questions. (Out of the 59 items on the TAS, 17 of the items (28%) had one to two cases with missing data.) Because the data set is small, and because the review of the missing data indicated that assumptions for data missing at random were met, multiple imputation (MI) of missing data was performed. Subsequent statistical analyses for TAS data utilized an averaged imputed dataset, following guidelines reported by Rubin (1976; 1987).
Although gains in knowledge were obtained on the F portion of the measure, in light of the poor reliability of this section of the TKS, we cannot draw strong conclusions about that portion of the teacher knowledge survey. In terms of OL concepts, not focal points of the PD, knowledge remained low at the end of the year with an average of 45% correct at year end. While this final score was significantly higher than the starting point of 40% correct, it represented an average gain of less than one item and probably occurred as a result of occasional questions from teachers about oral language topics.
References
Adams, M. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT.
Allington, R. L. (1991). The legacy of “slow it down and make it more concrete”. In J. Zutell & S. McCormick (Eds.), Learner factors/teacher factors: Issues in literacy research and instruction (pp. 19–29). Chicago: National Reading Conference.
Allington, R. L. (2005). Ignoring the policy makers to improve teacher preparation. Journal of Teacher Education, 56, 199–204. doi:10.1177/0022487105275845.
Ball, E. W., & Blachman, B. A. (1991). Does phoneme awareness training in kindergarten make a difference in early word recognition and developmental spelling? Reading Research Quarterly, 24, 49–66. doi:10.1598/RRQ.26.1.3.
Bear, D. R., Invernizzi, M., & Templeton, S. (2007). Words their way: Word study for phonics, vocabulary, and spelling instruction (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Beier, M. E., & Ackerman, P. L. (2005). Age, ability and the role of prior knowledge on the acquisition of new domain knowledge: Promising results in a real-world environment. Psychology and Aging, 20, 341–355. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.20.2.341.
Birsch, J. (2005). Multisensory teaching of basic language skills. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Blachman, B. A., Fletcher, J. M., Schatschneider, C., Francis, D. J., Clonan, S. M., Shaywitz, B. A., et al. (2004). Effects of intensive reading remediation for second and third graders and a 1-year follow-up. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 444–461. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.444.
Blachman, B. A., Tangel, D. M., Ball, E. W., Black, R., & McGraw, C. K. (1999). Developing phonological awareness and word recognition skills: A two-year intervention with low-income, inner-city children. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 11, 239–273. doi:10.1023/A:1008050403932.
Bos, C., Mather, N., Dickson, S., Podhajski, B., & Chard, D. (2001). Perceptions and knowledge of preservice and inservice educators about early reading instruction. Annals of Dyslexia, 51, 97–120. doi:10.1007/s11881-001-0007-0.
Bos, C., Mather, N., Friedman Narr, R., & Babur, N. (1999). Interactive, collaborative professional development in early literacy instruction: Supporting the balancing act. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 14, 227–238. doi:10.1207/sldrp1404_4.
Brady, S., & Gillis, M. (July, 2005). Common challenges in schools wanting to raise reading achievement: Lessons from the front lines. Paper presented at the advances in reading and literacy conference sponsored by the International Dyslexia Association, Washington, DC.
Brady, S., & Moats, L. (1997). Informed instruction for reading success: Foundations for teacher preparation. Baltimore, MD: International Dyslexia Association.
Cheney, W. S., & Cohen, J. (2000). Focus on phonics: Assessment and instruction. DeSoto, TX: The Wright Group.
Connor, C., Morrison, F., & Underwood, P. S. (2006). A second chance in second grade: The independent and cumulative impact of first and second grade reading instruction and students’ letter-word reading skill growth. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11, 199–234.
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16, 297–334. doi:10.1007/BF02310555.
Cunningham, A. E. (1990). Explicit versus implicit instruction in phonemic awareness. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 50, 429–444. doi:10.1016/0022-0965(90)90079-N.
Cunningham, A., Perry, K. E., Stanovich, K. E., & Stanovich, P. J. (2004). Disciplinary knowledge of K-3 teachers and their knowledge calibration in the domain of early literacy. Annals of Dyslexia, 54, 139–167. doi:10.1007/s11881-004-0007-y.
Daneman, M. (1991). Individual differences in reading skills. In R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 2, pp. 512–538). New York: Longman.
Fielding-Barnsley, R., & Purdie, N. (2005). Teachers’ attitude to and knowledge of metalinguistics in the process of learning to read. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 33, 65–76. doi:10.1080/1359866052000341133.
Foorman, B. R., Francis, D. J., Shaywitz, S. E., Shaywitz, B. A., & Fletcher, J. M. (1997). The case for early reading intervention. In B. A. Blachman (Ed.), Foundations of reading acquisition and dyslexia: Implications for early intervention (pp. 243–264). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Foorman, B. R., & Moats, L. C. (2004). Conditions for sustaining research-based practices in early reading instruction. Remedial and Special Education, 25, 51–60. doi:10.1177/07419325040250010601.
Foorman, B. R., Schatschneider, C., Eakin, M. N., Fletcher, J. M., Moats, L. C., & Francis, D. J. (2006). The impact of instructional practices in grades 1 and 2 on reading and spelling achievement in high poverty schools. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 31, 1–29. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2004.11.003.
Fowler, C. A., Liberman, I. Y., & Shankweiler, D. (1977). On interpreting the error pattern of the beginning reader. Language and Speech, 20, 162–173.
Ganske, K. (2000). Word journeys: Assessment-guided phonics, spelling, and vocabulary instruction. New York: The Guilford Press.
Gersten, R., Chard, D., & Baker, S. (2000). Factors enhancing sustained use of research-based instructional practices. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 445–457. doi:10.1177/002221940003300505.
Geudens, A., & Sandra, D. (2003). Beyond children’s implicit phonological knowledge: No support for an onset-rime structure in children’s explicit phonological awareness. Journal of Memory and Language, 49, 157–182. doi:10.1016/S0749-596X(03)00036-6.
Giovannelli, M. (2003). Relationship between reflective disposition toward teaching and effective teaching. The Journal of Educational Research, 96, 293–309.
Goodman, K. (1996). On reading. Portsmouth, NH: Heineman.
Goodman, K., & Goodman, Y. (1979). Learning to read is natural. In L. B. Resnick & P. A. Weaver (Eds.), Theory and practice of early reading (Vol. 1). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
Gregoire, M. (2003). Is it a challenge or a threat? A dual-process model of teachers’ cognition and appraisal processes during conceptual change. Educational Psychology Review, 15, 147–179. doi:10.1023/A:1023477131081.
Guskey, T. R. (2002). Professional development and teacher change. Teachers & Teaching: Theory & Practice, 8, 381–391. doi:10.1080/135406002100000512.
Henderson, E. H., & Beers, J. W. (1980). Developmental and cognitive aspects of learning to spell: A reflection of word knowledge. Newark, NJ: International Reading Association.
Henry, M. (2003). Unlocking literacy: Effective decoding and spelling instruction. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Jorm, A., Share, D., McLean, R., & Matthews, R. (1984). Phonological recoding and learning to read: A longitudinal study. Applied Psycholinguistics, 5, 201–207. doi:10.1017/S0142716400005075.
Juel, C. (1988). Learning to read and write: A longitudinal study of 54 children from first through fourth grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 22, 437–447. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.80.4.437.
Juel, C., & Minden-Cupp, C. (2000). Learning to read words: Linguistic units and instructional strategies. Reading Research Quarterly, 35, 458–498. doi:10.1598/RRQ.35.4.2.
Kameenui, E., Simmons, D., & Coyne, M. (2000). Schools as host environments: Toward a schoolwide reading improvement model. Annals of Dyslexia, 50, 33–51.
Liberman, I. Y., & Liberman, A. M. (1990). Whole language vs. code emphasis: Underlying assumptions and their implications for reading instruction. Annals of Dyslexia, 40, 51–76. doi:10.1007/BF02648140.
Lovett, M. W. (1987). A developmental approach to reading disability: Accuracy and speed criteria of normal and deficient reading skill. Child Development, 58, 234–260. doi:10.2307/1130305.
Lundberg, I., Frost, J., & Petersen, O. P. (1988). Effects of an extensive program for stimulating phonological awareness in preschool children. Reading Research Quarterly, 23, 264–284. doi:10.1598/RRQ.23.3.1.
Martin, G., & Pear, J. (2003). Behavior modification: What is it and how to do it (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Mather, N., Bos, C., & Babur, N. (2001). Perceptions and knowledge of preservice and inservice teachers about early literacy instruction. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34, 472–482. doi:10.1177/002221940103400508.
Mathewson, G. C. (1994). Model of attitude influence upon reading and learning to read. In R. B. Ruddell, M. R. Ruddell, & H. Singer (Eds.), Theoretical model and processes of reading (4th ed., pp. 1131–1161). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
McCardle, P., & Chhabra, V. (Eds.). (2004). The voice of evidence in reading research. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
McCutchen, D., Abbott, R. D., Green, L. B., Beretvas, S. N., Cox, S., Potter, N. S., et al. (2002a). Beginning literacy: Links among teacher knowledge, teacher practice, and student learning. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 69–86. doi:10.1177/002221940203500106.
McCutchen, D., & Berninger, G. (1999). Those who know teach well: Helping teachers master literacy-related subject matter knowledge. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 14, 215–226. doi:10.1207/sldrp1404_3.
McCutchen, D., Harry, D., Cunningham, A. E., Cox, S., Sidman, S., & Covill, A. (2002b). Content knowledge of teachers of beginning reading. Annals of Dyslexia, 52, 207–228. doi:10.1007/s11881-002-0013-x.
Moats, L. (2000). Speech to print: Language essentials for teachers. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Moats, L. C. (1994). The missing foundation in teacher education: Knowledge of the structure of spoken and written language. Annals of Dyslexia, 44, 81–102. doi:10.1007/BF02648156.
Moats, L. C. (1999). Teaching reading IS rocket science: What expert teachers of reading should know and be able to do. Washington, DC: American Federation of Teachers.
Moats, L. C., & Foorman, B. F. (2003). Measuring teachers’ content knowledge of language and reading. Annals of Dyslexia, 53, 23–45. doi:10.1007/s11881-003-0003-7.
Moore, A., Edwards, G., Halpin, D., & George, R. (2002). Compliance, resistance and pragmatism: The reconstruction of schoolteacher identities in a period of intensive educational reform. British Educational Research Journal, 28, 551–565. doi:10.1080/0141192022000005823.
Moorman, G. B., Blanton, W., & McLaughlin, T. (1994). The rhetoric of whole language. Reading Research Quarterly, 29, 308–332. doi:10.2307/747779.
National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
O’Connor, R. E. (2000). Teachers learning ‘Ladders to Literacy’. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 14, 203–214. doi:10.1207/sldrp1404_2.
Prochaska, J. O., Velicer, W. J., DiClemente, C. C., & Fava, J. L. (1988). Measuring the processes of change: Applications to the cessation of smoking. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 520–528. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.56.4.520.
Rayner, K., Foorman, B., Perfetti, C. A., Pesetsky, D., & Seidenberg, M. (2001). How psychological science informs the teaching of reading. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2, 31–74. doi:10.1111/1529-1006.00004.
Richardson, V., & Anders, P. L. (2005). Professional preparation and development of teachers in literacy instruction for urban settings. In J. Flood & P. Anders (Eds.), Literacy development of students in urban schools: Research and policy. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Rubin, D. B. (1976). Inferences and missing data. Biometrika, 63, 581–592. doi:10.1093/biomet/63.3.581.
Rubin, D. B. (1987). Multiple imputation for nonresponse in surveys. New York: Wiley.
Scarborough, H. S., & Brady, S. A. (2002). Toward a common terminology for talking about speech and reading: A glossary of the “Phon” words and some related terms. Journal of Literacy Research, 34, 299–334. doi:10.1207/s15548430jlr3403_3.
Scarborough, H. S., Ehri, L. C., Olson, R. C., & Fowler, A. E. (1998). The fate of phonemic awareness beyond the elementary school years. Scientific Studies of Reading, 2, 115–142. doi:10.1207/s1532799xssr0202_2.
Shankweiler, D. P., & Fowler, A. E. (2004). Questions people ask about the role of phonological processes in learning to read. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 17, 483–515. doi:10.1023/B:READ.0000044598.81628.e6.
Siegel, L. S., & Faux, D. (1989). Acquisition of certain grapheme-phoneme correspondences in normally achieving and disabled readers. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 1, 37–52.
Smith, F. (1994). Understanding reading: A psycholinguistic analysis of reading and learning to read (6th ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Smith, T. (2008). The effect of teacher attitudes on response to professional development in literacy. Doctoral dissertation, University of Rhode Island.
Snow, C., Griffin, P., & Burns, M. S. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academy.
Spear-Swerling, L., & Brucker, P. (2003). Teachers’ acquisition of knowledge about English word structure. Annals of Dyslexia, 53, 72–103. doi:10.1007/s11881-003-0005-5.
Spear-Swerling, L., & Brucker, P. (2004). Preparing novice teachers to develop basic reading and spelling skills in children. Annals of Dyslexia, 54, 332–364. doi:10.1007/s11881-004-0016-x.
Spear-Swerling, L., Brucker, P., & Alfano, M. P. (2005). Teachers’ literacy-related knowledge and self-perceptions in relation to preparation and experience. Annals of Dyslexia, 55, 266–296. doi:10.1007/s11881-005-0014-7.
Spira, E. G., Bracken, S. S., & Fischel, J. E. (2005). Predicting improvement after first-grade reading difficulties: The effects of oral language, emergent literacy, and behavior skills. Developmental Psychology, 41, 225–234. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.1.225.
Stuart, M. (1990). Factors influencing word recognition in pre-reading children. The British Journal of Psychology, 81, 135–146.
Torgesen, J. K., Alexander, A. W., Wagner, R. K., Rashotte, C. A., Voeller, K., Conway, T., et al. (2001). Intensive remedial instruction for children with severe reading disabilities: Immediate and long-term outcomes from two instructional approaches. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34, 33–58. doi:10.1177/002221940103400104.
Torgesen, J. K., Wagner, R. K., Rashotte, C. A., Rose, E., Lindamood, P., Conway, T., et al. (1999). Preventing reading failure in young children with phonological processing disabilities: Group and individual responses to instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 579–593. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.91.4.579.
Uhry, J. K., & Ehri, L. C. (June, 2006). Rime cohesion in kindergarten phoneme segmentation? The controversy continues. Paper presented at the Society for Scientific Study of Reading, Vancouver, CA.
Walsh, K. (2006). What teacher preparation programs aren’t teaching, and what elementary teachers aren’t learning. Washington, DC: National Council on Teacher Quality.
Willingham, D. T. (2006, Spring). How knowledge helps: It speeds and strengthens reading comprehension, learning and thinking. American Educator, Spring, 30–37.
Yopp, H. K. (1988). The validity and reliability of phonemic awareness tests. Reading Research Quarterly, 23, 159–177. doi:10.2307/747800.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the extensive time, effort, and participation of the teachers in this project. It was our pleasure to serve them and to work closely with them. We also thank the school administrators for their important support. At Haskins, we thank three individuals, Kim Herard, Lesley Shurman and Tammy Ursini, who had central roles in the daily operations of the project. We also wish to thank Leonard Katz for being a sounding board on statistical matters. Likewise, we express our sincere thanks to Anne Cunningham and the reviewers for this article for their very helpful input on the manuscript. Finally, we want to recognize the invaluable contribution of our deceased colleague, Anne Fowler, who was pivotal in launching and guiding our forays in professional development: she’d be happy that we are still endeavoring to bridge research and practice. This research was funded by Teacher Quality Research Grant #R305M03099 from the Institute of Education Science in the U.S. Department of Education.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Appendix 1
Appendix 1
Teacher Knowledge Survey: Items targeting phonological awareness and code concepts. (Correct answers are italicized.)
Notes: a) the items for all domains were intermixed in the actual survey.
b) Some of the items overlap with both phoneme awareness and code concepts. For those items, assignment to one or the other category was based on the relative emphasis or on the context in which the concept typically arises.
Phoneme Awareness Items
-
1.
Phoneme awareness is important for children learning to read because:
-
a.
It shows children how to decode words.
-
b.
It fosters fluency in reading.
-
c.
It provides children with the concept of rhyme.
-
d.
It provides the basis for understanding what letters represent.
-
e.
I’m not sure.
-
a.
-
2.
Which set of words should a teacher select for a phoneme awareness activity to give children practice with segmentation of four phonemes in one-syllable words?
-
a.
thrill, sting b. shark, string c. witch, dodge d. all of the above e. I’m not sure.
For each of the following, choose whether the activity would help children acquire:
-
a.
Phonological Sensitivity (sometimes referred to as phonological awareness);
-
b.
Phoneme Awareness c. Neither d. Both e. Not sure.
-
a.
-
3.
Clapping the number of syllables in a word. (a)
-
4.
Segmenting each of the phonemes (speech sounds) in a word. (b)
-
5.
Practicing the naming of letters. (c)
-
6.
Identifying the final phoneme in a word. (b)
-
7.
Identifying which word in a set of words rhymes with a target word. (a)
-
8.
Naming letters as quickly as possible. (c)
-
9.
Identifying nonspeech sounds (e.g., ball bouncing, whistle, sound of a hammer). (c)
-
10.
If you wanted to see if a child had mastered phoneme awareness, which is the best word to use (by asking a child to say each of the speech sounds)?
a. cat b. blast c. cabinet d. crash e. I’m not sure.
Below is an authentic list of words written by first graders (items from the list pertaining to phoneme awareness are listed below). For each child’s spelling, choose whether the child’s error most likely indicates that the child may be having trouble with: a. Phoneme Awareness b. Problems applying the code (phonics) c. Difficulty with other spelling features d. Not sure.
(Select only one answer.)
Target Word Child’s Spelling
-
11.
play pa (a)
-
12.
went wet (a)
Circle the number of speech sounds in each word:
a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4 e. 5 f. 6 h. 7 i. not sure
-
13.
best d. 4
-
14.
through c. 3
-
15.
chirp c. 3
-
16.
fresh d. 4
-
17.
quaint e. 5
-
18.
scratch e. 5
-
19.
shore b. 2
-
20.
next e. 5
Code Items
-
1.
What would be the best response if one of your students asked you: “What is the difference between consonants and vowels?
-
a.
The vowels are just AEIOU and sometimes Y, and the consonants are all the rest.
-
b.
All words have to have a vowel but they don’t have to have a consonant.
-
c.
In contrast to how we make consonant sounds, when we make vowel sounds our mouths are open and nothing gets in the way of the air coming out.
-
d.
I’m not sure.
Below is an authentic list of words written by first graders (items from the list pertaining to problems with the Code are listed below). For each child’s spelling, choose whether the child’s error most likely indicates that the child may be having trouble with: a. Phoneme Awareness b. Problems applying the Code (phonics) c. Difficulty with Other spelling features d. Not sure.
(Select only one answer.)
Target Word Child’s Spelling
-
2.
beet bet (b)
-
3.
rain rayn (b)
-
4.
trap chrap (b)
Mark the one feature that occurs in each word.
a. Blend b. Consonant digraph c. Vowel team d. Trigraph e. None g. Not Sure
-
5.
brim (a)
-
6.
lion (e)
-
7.
bush (b)
-
8.
charge (b)
-
9.
pipe (e)
-
10.
silk (a)
-
11.
seam (c)
And from a similar list (other items were dropped from analyses because they are redundant with the preceding list):
Select the one descriptor that applies to the underlined items:
a. Digraph b. Blend c. Trigraph d. Suffix e. Vowel Team f. None g. Not Sure
-
12.
jumped (d)
-
13.
Phonics instruction is:
-
a.
Teaching the correspondences between letters and sounds.
-
b.
Most effective when it incorporates other cueing systems such as meaning and syntax.
-
c.
Most effective when taught as needed while children are reading leveled text or authentic literature.
-
d.
Most effective when explicitly taught in a sequence from easier to more complex code patterns.
-
e.
I’m not sure.
-
a.
-
14.
If you were testing kids to see if they had mastered how to spell the silent “e” pattern, is there a value to including nonsense words such as tupe and snede?
-
a.
No. Nonsense words are not authentic because they have no meaning.
-
b.
No. Students would just confuse nonsense words with real words.
-
c.
Yes. Nonsense words allow the teacher to see if students can apply the pattern.
-
d.
Yes. Nonsense words are more difficult to spell because children haven’t seen them before.
-
e.
I’m not sure.
-
a.
-
15.
Consonants are:
-
a.
Speech sounds that are connected to letters.
-
b.
A group of speech sounds formed when the vocal airflow is obstructed either completely or partially.
-
c.
A group of speech sounds that are open, vocal and obstructed.
-
d.
Letters that children use to spell words.
-
e.
I’m not sure.
-
a.
In the following poem, find examples that contain the syllable types listed below. The words with two or more syllables (2+, multisyllabic words) may contain different syllables types. In those cases, carefully circle the syllable that illustrates the pattern. Choose one word for each line below. If you are not sure, write NS.
An Exciting Trip
I ride the elevator up
In our apartment house
And no one knows I’m playing
For I’m a quiet mouse.
But I pretend I’m piloting
A rocket, swift as light,
That’s full of passengers I’ll land
Upon the Moon tonight.
When we ride down, my rocket ship
Falls like a shooting star,
And lands upon the earth again
Without the slightest jar.
The other people never know,
As up and down we flip,
That I am taking them upon
A wild exciting trip!
Frances Gorman Risser
(one set of correct answers included)
-
16.
Closed
In a one-syllable word: ship
In a 2+ syllable word: pre tend
-
17.
Open
In a one-syllable word: we
In a 2+ syllable word: pre tend
-
18.
Silent e
Given one example: ride
-
19.
Vowel teams
‘Talker’ syllable type: play ing
‘Whiner’ syllable type: house
-
20.
R-controlled
In a one-syllable word: star
In a 2+ syllable word: passen gers
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Brady, S., Gillis, M., Smith, T. et al. First grade teachers’ knowledge of phonological awareness and code concepts: Examining gains from an intensive form of professional development and corresponding teacher attitudes. Read Writ 22, 425–455 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-009-9166-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-009-9166-x