Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Ecosystem services from forest restoration: thinking ahead

  • Published:
New Forests Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Global deforestation and forest degradation have led to massive loss of biodiversity and decline of ecosystem services. Against this prospect, it is important not only to protect, but also to restore forest ecosystems. The paper analyzes the current and future role of the restoration of forests and degraded lands starting with the definition of various techniques, scales and objectives of forest restoration. Three key motivations for and targets of forest restoration are then discussed: forest biodiversity protection, biomass production, climate change mitigation and adaptation. The paper also briefly discusses three tools of increasing relevance for supporting forest restoration policies: the development of forest nursery techniques and the improvement of quality of forest reproductive material, the use of standard and certification tools, and financing of restoration investments, including projects aimed at reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. We conclude by making some final remarks on the future challenges of forest restoration policies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. According to Potapov et al. (2008) an intact forest landscape is an unbroken extension of natural ecosystem within areas of current forest extent, without signs of significant human activity, and having an area of at least 500 km2.

  2. Defining forest restoration is not merely an academic issue. Definitions related to forestry and restoration are used under several national laws and international environmental agreements and conventions. A clear definition and the reduction of nuance therefore have important policy implications.

  3. Biomass sources include residues from agriculture and forestry, organic wastes, surplus forestry, and energy crops.

  4. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report, adaptation can be defined as the ‘adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities’. Adaptation strategies aim to reduce the vulnerability or enhance resilience in response to these ‘actual or expected changes’ and associated extreme events, and will be required in both human and ecological systems (Adger et al. 2007).

  5. The primary market refers to original transactions of credits directly from a project; the secondary market refers to all ensuing transactions.

References

  • Adger WN, Agrawal S, Mirza MMQ et al (2007) Assessment of adaptation practices, options, constraints and capacity. In: Parry ML, Canziani OF, Palutikof JP, van der Linden PJ, Hanson CE (eds) Climate change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of working group II to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 717–743

    Google Scholar 

  • Aerts R, Honnay O (2011) Forest restoration, biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. BMC Ecol 11–29. doi:10.1186/1472-6785-11-29

  • Barrow E, Clarke J, Grundy I et al (2002) Analysis of stakeholder power and responsibilities in community involvement in forest management in eastern and southern Africa. Forest and social perspectives in conservation (9). NRR-IUCN Eastern Africa Programme, Nairobi

  • Bass S, Nussbaum R, Speechly H, Morrison E (1996) Paper farming: the role of plantations in the sustainable paper cycle. The International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), London

    Google Scholar 

  • Beringer T, Lucht W, Schaohoff S (2011) Bioenergy production potential of global biomass plantations under environmental and agricultural constraints. GCB Bioenergy 3:299–312

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blaser J, Sabogal C (2002) Management strategies for degraded landscapes. Draft guidelines for the restoration of degraded primary forests, the management of secondary forests and the rehabilitation of degraded forest land in tropical regions. Draft report prepared on behalf of ITTO as basis for deliberations of the Expert Panel, Bern

  • Brown C (2000) The global outlook for future wood supply from forest plantations. Global forest products outlook study working paper series. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome

    Google Scholar 

  • Butchart SHM, Walpole M, Collen B et al (2010) Global biodiversity: indicators of recent declines. Science 328:1164–1168

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cairns J, Heckman JR (1996) Restoration ecology: the state of an emerging field. Annu Rev Energy Environ 21:167–189

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell A, Kapos V, Scharlemann JPC et al (2009) Review of the literature on the links between biodiversity and climate change: impacts, adaptation and mitigation, technical series 42. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal

    Google Scholar 

  • Canadell JG, Raupach MR (2008) Managing forests for climate change mitigation. Science 320:1456–1457

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chazdon RL (2008) Beyond deforestation: restoring forests and ecosystem services on degraded lands. Science 320:1458–1460

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cherubini F, Hammer Strømman A (2011) Life cycle assessment of bioenergy systems. State of the art and future challenges. Bioresour Technol 102:437–451

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chomitz KM (2007) At loggerheads? Agricultural expansion, poverty reduction, and environment in the tropical forests. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  • Chum H, Faaij A, Moreira J et al (2011) Bioenergy. In: Edenhofer O, Pichs-Madruga R, Sokona Y, Seyboth K, Matschoss P, Kadner S, Zwickel T, Eickemeier P, Hansen G, Schlömer S, von Stechow C (eds) IPCC special report on renewable energy sources and climate change mitigation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 209–332

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ciccarese L, Brown S, Schlamadinger B (2005) Carbon sequestration through restoration of temperate and boreal forests. In: Stunturf J, Madsen P (eds) restoration of temperate and boreal forests. CRC Press/Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, pp 111–120

    Google Scholar 

  • Dare M, Schirmer J, Vanclay F (2011) Does forest certification enhance community engagement in Australian plantation management? For Policy and Econ 13:328–337

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Pourc K, Thomas E, Van Damme P (2009) Indigenous community-based forestry in the Bolivian lowlands: some basic challenges for certification. Int For Rev 11:12–26

    Google Scholar 

  • Diaz S, Hector A, Wardle DA (2009) Incorporating biodiversity in climate change mitigation initiatives. In: Naeem S, Bunker DE, Hector A (eds) Biodiversity, ecosystem functioning, and human wellbeing—an ecological and economic perspective. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 149–166

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • EEA—European Environment Agency (2011) Greenhouse gas emission trends and projections in Europe 2011. Tracking progress towards Kyoto and 2020 targets. EEA report no 4/2011. Publications Office of the European Union,Luxembourg. http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/ghg-trends-and-projections-2011. Accessed 30 Apr 2012

  • Engel S, Pagiola S, Wunder S (2008) Designing payments for environmental services in theory and practice: an overview of the issues. Ecol Econ 65:663–674

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fagan KC, Pywell RF, Bullock JM, Marrs H (2008) Do restored calcareous grasslands on former arable fields resemble ancient targets? The effect of time, methods and environment on outcomes. J Appl Ecol 4:1293–1303

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • FAO (2005) Microfinance and forest-based small-scale enterprises. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO (2009) State of the world’s forests 2009. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO (2010) Global forest resources assessment. Main report, forestry paper 163. Food and Agriculture Organization to the United Nations, Rome

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO (2011) State of the world’s forests 2011. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome

    Google Scholar 

  • Fargione J, Hill J, Tilman D, Polasky S, Hawthorne P (2008) Land clearing and the biofuel carbon debt. Science 319:1235–1238

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ganz DJ, Durst PB (2003) Assisted natural regeneration: an overview. In: Dugan PC, Durst PB, Ganz DJ, McKenzie PJ (eds) Advancing assisted natural regeneration (ANR) in Asia and the Pacific. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, pp 1–4

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilmour DA, San NV, Tsechalicha X (2000) Rehabilitation of degraded forest ecosystems in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Vietnam: an overview. IUCN-Asia, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Griscoma HP, Ashton MS (2011) Restoration of dry tropical forests in Central America: a review of pattern and process. For Ecol Manag 261:1564–1579

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grossnickle SC (2005) Importance of root growth in overcoming planting stress. New For 30:273–294

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haines RJ (1994) Biotechnology in forest tree improvement: research directions and priorities. Unasylva 45:46–52

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall R, Romijn J (2010) Getting to the roots. Underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation, and drivers of forest restoration, by the global forest coalition, December 2010. p 41

  • Hall JS, Ashton MS, Garen EJ, Jose S (2011) The ecology and ecosystem services of native trees: implications for reforestation and land restoration in Mesoamerica. For Ecol Manag 261:1553–1557

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hannrup B, Jansson G, Danell Ö (2009) Comparing gain and optimum test size from progeny testing and phenotypic selection in Pinus sylvestris (L.). Can J For Res 37:1227–1235

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrington CA (1999) Forests planted for ecosystem restoration or conservation. New For 17:175–190

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hickey GM, Innes JL, Kozak RA et al (2006) Monitoring and information reporting for sustainable forest management: an inter-jurisdictional comparison of soft law standards. For Policy Econ 9:297–315

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holl KD, Aide TM (2011) When and where to actively restore ecosystems? For Ecol Manag 261:1558–1563

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holvoet B, Muys B (2004) Sustainable forest management worldwide: a comparative assessment of standards. Int For Rev 6:99–122

    Google Scholar 

  • Innes J, Joyce L, Kellomaki M et al (2009) Management for adaptation. In: Seppäla R, Buck A, Katila P (eds) Adaptation of forests and people to climate change, IUFRO world series 22. International Union of Forest Research Organizations, Vienna, pp 135–169

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanowski PJ, McDermott CL, Cashore BW (2011) Implementing REDD+: lessons from analysis of forest governance. Environ Sci Policy 14:111–117

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kolström M, Lindner M, Vilén T et al (2011) Reviewing the science and implementation of climate change adaptation measures in European forestry. Forests 2:961–982. doi:10.3390/f2040961

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laestadius L, Saint-Laurent C, Minnemeyer S, Potapov P (2011) A world of opportunity: the world’s forests from a restoration perspective. The global partnership on forest landscape restoration, World Resources Institute, South Dakota State University and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. http://pdf.wri.org/world_of_opportunity_brochure_2011-09.pdf. Accessed 31 April 2012

  • Lambin EF, Meyfroidt P (2011) Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity. Proc Natl Acad Sci 108:3465–3472

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MacNamara S, Tinh VT, Erskine PD et al (2006) Rehabilitating degraded forest land in central Vietnam with mixed native species plantings. For Ecol Manag 233:358–365

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mattsson A (1997) Predicting field performance using plant quality assessment. New For 13:227–252

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mattsson A, Radoglou K, Kostopoulou P et al (2010) Use of innovative technology for the production of high-quality forest regeneration materials. Scand J For Res 1:1–7

    Google Scholar 

  • MEA—Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) Ecosystems and human well-being: biodiversity synthesis. World Resources Institute, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  • Minnemeyer S, Laestadius L, Sizer N et al (2011) Assessing the potential for forest landscape restoration. Global partnership on forest landscape restoration. World Resources Institute, South Dakota State University, International Union for Conservation of Nature. p 5

  • Miyawaki A (1999) Creative ecology: restoration of native forests by native trees. Plant Biotechnol 16:15–25

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nabuurs GJ, Masera O, Andrasko K et al (2007) Forestry. In: Metz B, Davidson OR, Bosch PR, Dave R, Meyer L (eds) Climate change 2007: mitigation. Contribution of working group III to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 541–584

    Google Scholar 

  • Naeem S, Thompson LJ, Lawler SP et al (1994) Declining biodiversity can alter the performance of ecosystems. Nature 368:734–737

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neeff T, Ashford L, Calvert J et al. (2009) The forest carbon offsetting survey. Ecosecurities 32

  • Norris K (2012) Biodiversity in the context of ecosystem services: the applied need for systems approaches. Phil Trans R Soc B 367:163–169

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nussbaum R, Gray I, Higman S (2003) Modular implementation and verification (MIV): a toolkit for the phased application of forest management standards and certification. ProForest, Oxford. http://assets.panda.org/downloads/mivtoolkit.pdf. Accessed 30 Apr 2012

  • Pan Y, Birdsey RA, Fang J et al (2011) A large and persistent carbon sink in the world’s forests. Science 333:988–993

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Parrotta JA, Knowles OH (2001) Restoring tropical forests on lands mined for bauxite: examples from the Brazilian Amazon. Ecol Eng 17:219–239

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peters-Stanley M, Hamilton K, Marcello T, Sjardin M (2011) Back to the future. State of the voluntary carbon markets 2011. A report by Ecosystem Marketplace & Bloomberg New Energy Finance, New York, p 78

  • Potapov P, Yaroshenko A, Turubanova S et al (2008) Mapping the world’s intact forest landscapes by remote sensing. Ecol Soc 13:51. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss2/art51/. Accessed 30 Apr 2012

    Google Scholar 

  • Ræbild A, Larsen AS, Jensen JS et al (2011) Advances in domestication of indigenous fruit trees in the West African Sahel. New For 41:297–315

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raunikar R, Buongiorno J, Turner JA, Shushuai Zhu (2010) Global outlook for wood and forests with the bioenergy demand implied by scenarios of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. J For Policy Econ 12:48–56

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ravindranath NH (2007) Mitigation and adaptation synergy in the forest sector. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Chang 12:843–853

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reich PB (2011) Biogeochemistry: taking stock of forest carbon. Nat Clim Chang 1:346–347

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rey Benayas JM, Newton AC, Diaz A, Bullock JM (2009) Enhancement of biodiversity and ecosystem services by ecological restoration: a meta-analysis. Science 325:1121–1124

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts G, Parrotta J, Wreford A (2009a) Current adaptation measures and policies. In: Seppäla R, Buck A, Katila P (eds) Adaptation of forests and people to climate change—a global assessment report. IUFRO world series volume 22. International Union of Forest Research Organizations, Helsinki, pp 123–134

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts L, Stone R, Sugden A (2009b) The rise of restoration ecology. Science 325:555

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sala OE, Chapin FS, Armesto JJ et al (2000) Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100. Science 287:1770–1774

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schlamadinger B, Bird N, Johns T et al (2007) A synopsis of land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) under the Kyoto protocol and Marrakech accords. Environ Sci Policy 10:271–282

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seppäla R, Buck A, Katila P (2009) Adaptation of forests and people to climate change. International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO), Helsinki

    Google Scholar 

  • Shono K, Cadaweng EA, Durst PB (2007) Application of assisted natural regeneration to restore degraded tropical forestlands restoration. Ecology 15:620–626

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanturf JA, Madsen P (2005) What is forest restoration? In: Stanturf JA, Madsen P (eds) Restoration of boreal and temperate forests. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 3–11

    Google Scholar 

  • TEEB (2010) The economics of ecosystems and biodiversity: mainstreaming the economics of nature: a synthesis of the approach, conclusions and recommendations of TEEB. Progress Press, Malta

    Google Scholar 

  • TNC (2011) Forest conservation: responsible trade forest certification and the nature conservancy. http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/habitats/forests/howwework/responsible-forest-trade-forest-certification.xml. Accessed 30 Apr 2012

  • UNEP (2011) Towards a green economy: pathways to sustainable development and poverty eradication. A synthesis for policy makers. http://www.unep.org/greeneconomy/Portals/88/documents/ger/GER_synthesis_en.pdf. Accessed 30 Apr 2012

  • Valentine J, Clifton-Brown J, Hastings A, Robson P, Allison G, Smith P (2012) Food vs. fuel: the use of land for lignocellulosic ‘next generation’ energy crops that minimize competition with primary food production. GCB Bioenergy 4:1–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van der Werf GR, Morton DC, De Fries RS, Olivier JGJ, Kasibhatla PS, Jackson RB, Collatz GJ, Randerson JT (2009) CO2 emissions from forest loss. Nat Geosci 2:737–738

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vance ED (2010) Gap analysis for forest productivity research investments. J For 108:161–162

    Google Scholar 

  • Vance ED, Maguire DA, Zalesny RS (2010) Research strategies for increasing productivity of intensively managed forest plantations. J For 108:183–192

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagner MR, Block WM, Geils BW, Wenger KF (2000) Restoring ecology. A new forest management paradigm, or another merit badge for foresters? J For 98:22–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang J, Ren H, Yang L, Li D (2011) Factors influencing establishment by direct seeding of indigenous tree species in typical plantations and shrubland in South China. New For 1:19–33. doi:10.1007/s11056-010-9234-8W

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weng Y, Park YS, Lindgren D (2012) Unequal clonal deployment improves genetic gains at constant diversity levels for clonal forestry. Tree Genet Genomes 8:77–85

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White A, Bull GQ, Maginnis S (2006) Subsidies for industrial plantations: turning controversy into opportunity. Arbor Vitae 31:15

    Google Scholar 

  • Wunder S (2007) The efficiency of payments for environmental services in tropical conservation. Conserv Biol 21:48–58

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Nature Conservation Department, Italian Institute for Environmental Protection and Research, Via V. Brancati 48, 00144, Rome, Italy

    Lorenzo Ciccarese

  2. Department of Forest and Wood Technology, Dalarna University, Högskolegatan 2, 791 88, Falun, Sweden

    Anders Mattsson

  3. Land, Environment, Agriculture and Forestry Department, University of Padua, Via Università 16, 35020, Legnaro PD, Italy

    Davide Pettenella

Authors
  1. Lorenzo Ciccarese
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Anders Mattsson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Davide Pettenella
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lorenzo Ciccarese.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Ciccarese, L., Mattsson, A. & Pettenella, D. Ecosystem services from forest restoration: thinking ahead. New Forests 43, 543–560 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-012-9350-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11056-012-9350-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation