Abstract
This paper examines over 900 why-questions gathered in a longitudinal study of an English-speaking child from 2 to 6 years of age. The child went through a protracted stage in which many why-questions lacked subject-aux inversion, in contrast to other wh-questions. While this asymmetry has been observed in the previous literature, several new observations also emerged. First, the child permitted focus phrases, topic phrases and subordinate clauses to intervene between why and the subject NP in matrix why-questions with no I to C movement. Second, subject-aux inversion was consistently manifested in long-distance questions with tensed embedded clauses, and in utterances with why that were not information-seeking questions. Based on the pattern of data, it is proposed that some children initially permit why to merge high in the left periphery, in SpecIntP, following a proposal for Italian by Rizzi, L. (2001). On the position “Int(errogative)” in the left periphery of the clause. In G. Cinque & G. Salvi (Eds.), Current studies in Italian syntax (pp. 287-296). Oxford: Elsevier. The paper considers whether the child data are best explained (i) by a why-parameter that distinguishes languages permitting merge of why from those languages limited to movement (cf. Ko, H. (2005). Syntax of why-in-situ: Merge into [SpecCP] in the overt syntax. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory, 23, 867-916.), or (ii) as evidence of a universal principle. In the final analysis, the parameter account is preferred, because it explains the individual variation and the sharp transition to the adult grammar that is observed in some children.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ambridge, B., Rowland, C., Theakston, A., & Tomasello, M. (2006). Comparing different accounts of inversion errors in children’s non-subject wh-questions: What experimental data can tell us? Journal of Child Language, 33, 519-557.
Baker, M. (2001). The atoms of language: The mind’s hidden rules of grammar. New York: Basic Books.
Baker, M. (2005). Mapping the terrain of language acquisition. Language Learning and Development, 1, 93-129.
Berk, S. (2003). Why “why” is different. In B. Beachley, A. Brown & F. Conlin (Eds.), Proceedings of BUCLD 27, (pp. 127-137). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.
Brown, R., & Hanlon, C. (1970). Derivational complexity and order of acquisition in child speech. In J. Hayes (Ed.), Cognition and the development of language (pp. 1-53). New York: Wiley.
Chomsky, N. (1981). Lectures on government and binding. Dordrecht: Foris Publications.
Chomsky, N. (1995). The minimalist program. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Chomsky, N. (2002). On nature and language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Clahsen, H., Kursawe, C., & Penke, M. (1995). Introducing CP: Wh-questions and subordinate clauses in German child language. Essex Research Reports in Linguistics, 7, 1-28. Essex, England: University of Essex, Department of Linguistics.
Collins, C. (1991). Why and how come. MIT Working Papers in Linguistics, 15, 31-45.
Conroy, A. (2006). The semantics of how come: A look at how factivity does it all. Maryland Working Papers in Linguistics, 14, 1-24.
Conroy, A., & Lidz, J. (2007). Production/comprehension asymmetry in children’s why questions. In A. Belikova (Ed.), Proceedings of the second conference on generative approaches to language acquisition North America (GALANA) (pp. 73-83). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.
Crain, S., & Pietroski, P. (2002). Why language acquisition is a snap. The Linguistic Review, 19, 163-183.
Crain, S., & Thornton, R. (1998). Investigations in Universal Grammar: A guide to experiments on syntax and semantics. Cambridge: MIT Press.
De Villiers, J. (1991). Why questions? In T. Maxfield, & B. Plunkett (Eds.), UMOP Special edition: Papers in the acquisition of Wh (pp. 155-175). Amherst, MA: GLSA.
De Villiers, J., Roeper, T., & Vainikka, A. (1990). The acquisition of long-distance rules. In L. Frazier, & J. de Villiers (Eds.), Language processing and language acquisition (pp. 257-298). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Fodor, J. D. (1998). Unambiguous triggers. Linguistic Inquiry, 29, 1-36.
Fodor, J. D. (2003). Setting syntactic parameters; VI: External evaluation of syntax. In M. Baltin, & C. Collins (Eds.), The Handbook of contemporary syntactic theory (pp. 730-767). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Gibson, E., & Wexler, K. (1994). Triggers. Linguistic Inquiry, 25, 407-454.
Guasti, M. T. (1996). Acquisition of Italian interrogatives. In H. Clahsen (Ed.), Generative perspectives on language acquisition (pp. 241-270). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Guasti, M. T. (2002). Language acquisition: The growth of grammar. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Guasti, M. T., & Rizzi, L. (1996). Null aux and the acquisition of residual V2. In A. Stringfellow, D. Cahana-Amitay, E. Hughes & A. Zukowski (Eds.) Proceedings of BUCLD 20 (pp. 284-295). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.
Guasti, M. T., Thornton, R., & Wexler, K. (1995). Negation in children’s questions: The case of English. In D. MacLaughlin & S. McEwen (Eds.) Proceedings of BUCLD 19 (pp. 228-240). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.
Huang, C.-T. James. (1982) Logical relations in Chinese and the theory of grammar. PhD dissertation, MIT.
Hyams, N. (1986). Language acquisition and the theory of parameters. Dordrecht: D. Reidel.
Ko, H. (2005). Syntax of why-in-situ: Merge into [SpecCP] in the overt syntax. Natural Language and Linguistic Theory, 23, 867-916.
Labov, W., & Labov, T. (1978). Learning the syntax of questions. In R. Campbell & P. Smith (Eds.), Recent advances in the psychology of language III:4b (pp. 1-44). New York: Plenum Press.
Lasnik, H. (1989). On certain substitutes for negative data. In R. J. Matthews & W. Demopoulos (Eds) Learnability and linguistic theory (pp. 89-105). Dordrecht: D. Reidel.
Lasnik, H., & Crain, S. (1985). On the acquisition of pronominal reference. Lingua, 65, 135-154.
Lightfoot, D. (1999). The development of language: Acquisition, change and evolution. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
MacWhinney, B. (2000). The CHILDES project: Tools for analyzing talk. Third edition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
McCloskey, J. (2002). Resumption, successive cyclicity and the locality of operations. In S. Epstein & D. Seely (Eds.), Derivation and explanation (pp. 184-226). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.
McCloskey, J. (2003). Working on Irish. GLOT, 7, 63-72.
Marcus, G. (1993). Negative evidence in language acquisition. Cognition, 46, 53-85.
Moore, M. (2003). Dude, where’s my country? Victoria, Australia: Allen Lane, Penguin Books.
Morgan, J., & Travis, L. (1989). Limits on negative information in language input. Journal of Child Language, 16, 531-552.
Pinker, S. (1984). Language learnability and language development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Rizzi, L. (1990). Relativized minimality. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Rizzi, L. (1996). Residual verb second and the Wh criterion. In A. Belletti & L. Rizzi (Eds.), Parameters and functional heads (pp. 375-386). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rizzi, L. (1997). The fine structure of the left periphery. In L. Haegeman (Ed.), Elements of grammar (pp. 281-337). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Press.
Rizzi, L. (2001). On the position “Int(errogative)” in the left periphery of the clause. In G. Cinque & G. Salvi (Eds.), Current studies in Italian syntax (pp. 287-296). Oxford: Elsevier.
Rizzi, L. (2004). On the study of the language faculty: Results, developments and perspectives. The Linguistic Review, 21, 323-344.
Rowland, C., & Pine, J. (2000). Subject-auxiliary inversion errors and wh-question acquisition: ‘what do children know?’ Journal of Child Language, 27, 157-181.
Rowland, C., & Pine, J. (2003). The development of inversion in wh-questions: A reply to Van Valin. Journal of Child Language, 30, 197-212.
Santelmann, L. (1998). The acquisition of verb movement and spec-head relationships in child Swedish. In D. Adger, S. Pintzuk, B. Plunket & G. Tsoulas (Eds.), Specifiers: Minimalist approaches. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Sarma, J. (1991). The Acquisition of wh-questions in English. PhD dissertation: University of Connecticut.
Snyder, W. (2007). Child language: The parametric approach. New York: Oxford University Press.
Stromswold, K. (1990). Learnability and the acquisition of auxiliaries. PhD dissertation, MIT.
Thornton, R. (1995). Referentiality and wh-movement in child English: Juvenile D-Linkuency. Language Acquisition, 4, 139-175.
Thornton, R. (2004). Why continuity. In A. Brugos, L. Micciulla & C. E. Smith (Eds.), BUCLD 28 (pp. 620-632). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press.
Tsai, W.-T. Dylan. (2005). Left periphery and how-why alternations. Paper presented at the 5th Asian GLOW. Delhi, India.
Van Valin, R. D. (2002). The development of subject-auxiliary inversion in English wh-questions: An alternative analysis. Journal of Child Language, 29, 161-175.
Wexler, K. (1998). Very early parameter setting and the unique checking constraint: A new explanation of the optional infinitive stage. Lingua, 106, 23-79.
Yang, C. (2002). Knowledge and learning in natural language. New York: Oxford University Press.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Thornton, R. Why continuity. Nat Language Linguistic Theory 26, 107–146 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11049-007-9031-z
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11049-007-9031-z