Abstract
UV-filters are widely used in cosmetics and personal care products to protect users’ skin from redamage caused by ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. Globally, an estimated 16,000 to 25,000 tonnes of products containing UV-filters were used in 2014 with modern consumption likely to be much higher. Beyond this use in cosmetics and personal care products, UV-filters are also widely used to provide UV-stability in industrial products such as paints and plastics. This review discusses the main routes by which UV-filters enter aquatic environments and summarises the conclusions of studies from the past 10 years that have investigated the effects of UV-filters on environmentally relevant species including corals, microalgae, fish, and marine mammals. Safety data regarding the potential impact of UV-filters on human health are also discussed. Finally, we explore the challenges surrounding UV-filter removal and research on more environmentally friendly alternatives to current UV-filters.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of data and material (data transparency)
Not Applicable.
Code availability (software application or custom code)
Not Applicable.
References
Ahmed, M. B., Johir, M. A. H., Zhou, J. L., Ngo, H. H., Guo, W., & Sornalingam, K. (2017). Photolytic and photocatalytic degradation of organic UV filters in contaminated water. Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry, 6, 85–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsc.2017.06.010
Ahn, S., An, S., Lee, M., Lee, E., Pyo, J. J., Kim, J. H., Ki, M. W., Jin, S. H., Ha, J., & Noh, M. (2019). A long-wave UVA filter avobenzone induces obesogenic phenotypes in normal human epidermal keratinocytes and mesenchymal stem cells. Archives of Toxicology, 93, 1903–1915. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-019-02462-1
Alamer, M., & Darbre, P. D. (2018). Effects of exposure to six chemical ultraviolet filters commonly used in personal care products on motility of MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells in vitro. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 38, 148–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/jat.3525
Almeida, I. F., Pinto, A. S., Monteiro, C., Monteiro, H., Belo, L., Fernandes, J., Bento, A. R., Duarte, T. L., Garrido, J., Bahia, M. F., Sousa Lobo, J. M., & Costa, P. C. (2015). Protective effect of C. sativa leaf extract against UV mediated-DNA damage in a human keratinocyte cell line. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology, 144, 28–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2015.01.010
Alonso, M. B., Feo, M. L., Corcellas, C., Gago-Ferrero, P., Bertozzi, C. P., Marigo, J., Flach, L., Meirelles, A. C. O., Carvalho, V. L., Azevedo, A. F., Torres, J. P. M., Lailson-Brito, J., Malm, O., Diaz-Cruz, M. S., Eljarrat, E., & Barceló, D. (2015). Toxic heritage: Maternal transfer of pyrethroid insecticides and sunscreen agents in dolphins from Brazil. Environmental Pollution, 207, 391–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2015.09.039
Anway, M. D., & Skinner, M. K. (2006). Epigenetic transgenerational actions of endocrine disruptors. Endocrinology, 147, S43–S49. https://doi.org/10.1210/en.2005-1058
Badia-Fabregat, M., Rodríguez-Rodríguez, C. E., Gago-Ferrero, P., Olivares, A., Piña, B., Díaz-Cruz, M. S., Vicent, T., Barceló, D., & Caminal, G. (2012). Degradation of UV filters in sewage sludge and 4-MBC in liquid medium by the ligninolytic fungus Trametes versicolor. Journal of Environmental Management, 104, 114–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.03.039
Bakir, A., Rowland, S. J., & Thompson, R. C. (2014). Transport of persistent organic pollutants by microplastics in estuarine conditions. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 140, 14–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2014.01.004
Balmer, M. E., Buser, H. R., Müller, M. D., & Poiger, T. (2005). Occurrence of some organic UV filters in wastewater, in surface waters, and in fish from Swiss lakes. Environmental Science and Technology, 39, 953–962. https://doi.org/10.1021/es040055r
Ben-Zvi, O., Eyal, G., & Loya, Y. (2015). Light-dependent fluorescence in the coral Galaxea fascicularis. Hydrobiologia, 759, 15–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-014-2063-6
Blüthgen, N., Zucchi, S., & Fent, K. (2012). Effects of the UV filter benzophenone-3 (oxybenzone) at low concentrations in zebrafish (Danio rerio). Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 263, 184–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2012.06.008
Bundschuh, M., Filser, J., Lüderwald, S., McKee, M. S., Metreveli, G., Schaumann, G. E., Schulz, R., & Wagner, S. (2018). Nanoparticles in the environment: Where do we come from, where do we go to? Environmental Sciences Europe, 30, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-018-0132-6
Burkhardt-Holm, P., & N’Guyen, A. (2019). Ingestion of microplastics by fish and other prey organisms of cetaceans, exemplified for two large baleen whale species. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 144, 224–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.04.068
Cadena-Aizaga, M. I., Montesdeoca-Esponda, S., Torres-Padrón, M. E., Sosa-Ferrera, Z., & Santana-Rodríguez, J. J. (2020). Organic UV filters in marine environments: An update of analytical methodologies, occurrence and distribution. Trends in Environmental Analytical Chemistry, 25, e00079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.teac.2019.e00079
Calafat, A. M., Wong, L. Y., Ye, X., Reidy, J. A., & Needham, L. L. (2008). Concentrations of the sunscreen agent benzophenone-3 in residents of the United States: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003–2004. Environmental Health Perspectives, 116, 893–897. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.11269
Cavus, I., Pan, J. W., Hetherington, H. P., Abi-Saab, W., Zaveri, H. P., Vives, K. P., Krystal, J. H., Spencer, S. S., & Spencer, D. D. (2008). Decreased hippocampal volume on MRI is associated with increased extracellular glutamate in epilepsy patients. Epilepsia, 49, 1358–1366. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2008.01603.x
Chen, Y., Vymazal, J., Březinová, T., Koželuh, M., Kule, L., Huang, J., & Chen, Z. (2016). Occurrence, removal and environmental risk assessment of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in rural wastewater treatment wetlands. Science of the Total Environment, 566, 1660–1669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.06.069
Commission Regulation. (2017). 2017/238 of 10 February 2017 amending Annex VI to Regulation (EC) No 1223/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council on cosmetic products, 37–38.
Corinaldesi, C., Marcellini, F., Nepote, E., Damiani, E., & Danovaro, R. (2018). Impact of inorganic UV filters contained in sunscreen products on tropical stony corals (Acropora spp.). Science of the Total Environment, 637, 1279–1285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.05.108
Courtene-Jones, W., Quinn, B., Gary, S. F., Mogg, A. O. M., & Narayanaswamy, B. E. (2017). Microplastic pollution identified in deep-sea water and ingested by benthic invertebrates in the Rockall Trough, North Atlantic Ocean. Environmental Pollution, 231, 271–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.08.026
Cozzi, A. C., Perugini, P., & Gourion-Arsiquaud, S. (2018). Comparative behavior between sunscreens based on free or encapsulated UV filters in term of skin penetration, retention and photo-stability. European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 121, 309–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejps.2018.06.001
da Silva, A. C. P., Santos, B. A. M. C., Castro, H. C., & Rodrigues, C. R. (2021). Ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate and butyl methoxydibenzoylmethane: Toxicological effects on marine biota and human concerns. Journal of Applied Toxicology. https://doi.org/10.1002/jat.4210
Dauvergne, P. (2018). The power of environmental norms: Marine plastic pollution and the politics of microbeads. Environmental Politics, 27, 579–597. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644016.2018.1449090
Díaz-Cruz, M. S., & Barceló, D. (2009). Chemical analysis and ecotoxicological effects of organic UV-absorbing compounds in aquatic ecosystems. TrAC - Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 28, 708–717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2009.03.010
Domínguez-Morueco, N., Moreno-Merino, L., Molins-Delgado, D., Díaz-Cruz, M. S., Aznar-Alemany, Ò., Eljarrat, E., Farré, M., López-Martínez, J., López de Alda, M., Silva, A., Durán Valsero, J. J., & Valcárcel, Y. (2021). Anthropogenic contaminants in freshwater from the northern Antarctic Peninsula region. Ambio, 50, 544–559. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-020-01404-x
Donohue, M. J., Masura, J., Gelatt, T., Ream, R., Baker, J. D., Faulhaber, K., & Lerner, D. T. (2019). Evaluating exposure of northern fur seals, Callorhinus ursinus, to microplastic pollution through fecal analysis. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 138, 213–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.11.036
Downs, C. A., Kramarsky-Winter, E., Fauth, J. E., Segal, R., Bronstein, O., Jeger, R., Lichtenfeld, Y., Woodley, C. M., Pennington, P., Kushmaro, A., & Loya, Y. (2014). Toxicological effects of the sunscreen UV filter, benzophenone-2, on planulae and in vitro cells of the coral, Stylophora pistillata. Ecotoxicology, 23, 175–191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-013-1161-y
Downs, C. A., Kramarsky-Winter, E., Segal, R., Fauth, J., Knutson, S., Bronstein, O., Ciner, F. R., Jeger, R., Lichtenfeld, Y., Woodley, C. M., Pennington, P., Cadenas, K., Kushmaro, A., & Loya, Y. (2016). Toxicopathological effects of the sunscreen UV filter, oxybenzone (benzophenone-3), on coral planulae and cultured primary cells and Its environmental contamination in Hawaii and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 70, 265–288. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-015-0227-7
Du, Y., Wang, W. Q., Pei, Z. T., Ahmad, F., Xu, R. R., Zhang, Y. M., & Sun, L. W. (2017). Acute toxicity and ecological risk assessment of benzophenone-3 (BP-3) and benzophenone-4 (BP-4) in ultraviolet (UV)-filters. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14, 1414. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14111414
Ebele, A. J., Abou-Elwafa Abdallah, M., & Harrad, S. (2017). Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in the freshwater aquatic environment. Emerging Contaminants, 3, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emcon.2016.12.004
Ekpeghere, K. I., Kim, U. J., & O, S.H., Kim, H.Y., Oh, J.E.,. (2016). Distribution and seasonal occurrence of UV filters in rivers and wastewater treatment plants in Korea. Science of the Total Environment, 542, 121–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.10.033
Fagervold, S.K., Rohée, C., Rodrigues, A.M.S., Stien, D. and Lebaron, P. (2021). Efficient degradation of the organic UV filter benzophenone-3 by Sphingomonas wittichii strain BP14P isolated from WWTP sludge. Science of the Total Environment, 758, 143674.
Faria, M., Navas, J. M., Soares, A. M. V. M., & Barata, C. (2014). Oxidative stress effects of titanium dioxide nanoparticle aggregates in zebrafish embryos. Science of the Total Environment, 470, 379–389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.09.055
Fent, K., Zenker, A., & Rapp, M. (2010). Widespread occurrence of estrogenic UV-filters in aquatic ecosystems in Switzerland. Environmental Pollution, 158, 1817–1824. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2009.11.005
Ferguson, K. K., Meeker, J. D., Cantonwine, D. E., Mukherjee, B., Pace, G. G., Weller, D., & McElrath, T. F. (2018). Environmental phenol associations with ultrasound and delivery measures of fetal growth. Environment International, 112, 243–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2017.12.011
Foot, N., Henshall, T., & Kumar, S. (2017). Ubiquitination and the regulation of membrane proteins. Physiological Reviews, 97, 253–281. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00012.2016
Gago-Ferrero, P., Alonso, M. B., Bertozzi, C. P., Marigo, J., Barbosa, L., Cremer, M., Secchi, E. R., Azevedo, A., Lailson-Brito, J., Torres, J. P. M., Malm, O., Eljarrat, E., Díaz-Cruz, M. S., & Barceló, D. (2013). First determination of UV filters in marine mammals. octocrylene levels in Franciscana dolphins. Environmental Science and Technology, 47, 5619–5625. https://doi.org/10.1021/es400675y
Gago-Ferrero, P., Badia-Fabregat, M., Olivares, A., Piña, B., Blánquez, P., Vicent, T., Caminal, G., Díaz-Cruz, M. S., & Barceló, D. (2012). Evaluation of fungal- and photo-degradation as potential treatments for the removal of sunscreens BP3 and BP1. Science of the Total Environment, 427, 355–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.03.089
Gago-Ferrero, P., Díaz-Cruz, M. S., & Barceló, D. (2011). Fast pressurized liquid extraction with in-cell purification and analysis by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry for the determination of UV filters and their degradation products in sediments. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 400, 2195–2204. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-011-4951-1
Gingerich, S., Kim, G. L., Chalmers, J. A., Koletar, M. M., Wang, X., Wang, Y., & Belsham, D. D. (2010). Estrogen receptor alpha and G-protein coupled receptor 30 mediate the neuroprotective effects of 17β-estradiol in novel murine hippocampal cell models. Neuroscience, 170, 54–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.06.076
Gobierno, A. (2020). Environmental unfriendly products will be banned starting July 1,2020, retrieved November 5th, 2021, from https://www.government.aw/news/news_47033/item/environmental-unfriendly-products-will-be-banned-starting-july-1-2020_51844.html
Gondikas, A. P., Von Der Kammer, F., Reed, R. B., Wagner, S., Ranville, J. F., & Hofmann, T. (2014). Release of TiO2 nanoparticles from sunscreens into surface waters: A one-year survey at the old danube recreational lake. Environmental Science and Technology, 48, 5415–5422. https://doi.org/10.1021/es405596y
Gonzalez, H., Farbrot, A., Larkö, O., & Wennberg, A. M. (2006). Percutaneous absorption of the sunscreen benzophenone-3 after repeated whole-body applications, with and without ultraviolet irradiation. British Journal of Dermatology, 154, 337–340. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.2005.07007.x
Gottschalk, F., Lassen, C., Kjoelholt, J., Christensen, F., & Nowack, B. (2015). Modeling flows and concentrations of nine engineered nanomaterials in the Danish environment. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12, 5581–5602. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120505581
Haynes, V. N., Ward, J. E., Russell, B. J., & Agrios, A. G. (2017). Photocatalytic effects of titanium dioxide nanoparticles on aquatic organisms—Current knowledge and suggestions for future research. Aquatic Toxicology, 185, 138–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2017.02.012
Hernandez-Milian, G., Lusher, A., MacGabban, S., & Rogan, E. (2019). Microplastics in grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) intestines: Are they associated with parasite aggregations? Marine Pollution Bulletin, 146, 349–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.06.014
Hewitt, N. J., Grégoire, S., Cubberley, R., Duplan, H., Eilstein, J., Ellison, C., Lester, C., Fabian, E., Fernandez, J., Géniès, C., Jacques-Jamin, C., Klaric, M., Rothe, H., Sorrell, I., Lange, D., & Schepky, A. (2020). Measurement of the penetration of 56 cosmetic relevant chemicals into and through human skin using a standardized protocol. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 40, 403–405. https://doi.org/10.1002/jat.3913
Hopkins, Z. R., & Blaney, L. (2016). An aggregate analysis of personal care products in the environment: Identifying the distribution of environmentally-relevant concentrations. Environment International, 92, 301–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2016.04.026
Hopkins, Z. R., Snowberger, S., & Blaney, L. (2017). Ozonation of the oxybenzone, octinoxate, and octocrylene UV-filters: Reaction kinetics, absorbance characteristics, and transformation products. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 338(338), 23–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.05.016
Hu, C., Hou, J., Zhu, Y., Lin, D. (2020). Multigenerational exposure to TiO2 nanoparticles in soil stimulates stress resistance and longevity of survived C. elegans via activating insulin/IGF-like signaling. Environmental Pollution, 263, 114376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114376
Huang, Y., Wang, P., Law, J. C. F., Zhao, Y., Wei, Q., Zhou, Y., Zhang, Y., Shi, H., & Leung, K. S. Y. (2020). Organic UV filter exposure and pubertal development: A prospective follow-up study of urban Chinese adolescents. Environment International, 143, 105961. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.105961
Huo, W., Cai, P., Chen, M., Li, H., Tang, J., Xu, C., Zhu, D., Tang, W., & Xia, Y. (2016). The relationship between prenatal exposure to BP-3 and Hirschsprung’s disease. Chemosphere, 144, 1091–1097. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.09.019
Iwasaki, S., Isobe, A., Kako, S., Uchida, K., & Tokai, T. (2017). Fate of microplastics and mesoplastics carried by surface currents and wind waves: A numerical model approach in the Sea of Japan. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 121, 85–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.05.057
Ji, J., Kakade, A., Yu, Z., Khan, A., Liu, P., & Li, X. (2020). Anaerobic membrane bioreactors for treatment of emerging contaminants: A review. Journal of Environmental Management, 270, 110913. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110913
Jones, J., Porter, A., Muñoz-pérez, J., Alarcón-ruales, D., & Galloway, T. (2021). Plastic contamination of the Galapagos marine food web and the relative risks to native species. Science of the Total Environment, 789, 147704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147704
Justus, C. R., Leffler, N., Ruiz-Echevarria, M., & Yang, L. V. (2014). In vitro cell migration and invasion assays. Journal of Visualized Experiments, 88, 51046. https://doi.org/10.3791/51046
Kalčíková, G., Alič, B., Skalar, T., Bundschuh, M., & Gotvajn, A. Ž. (2017). Wastewater treatment plant effluents as source of cosmetic polyethylene microbeads to freshwater. Chemosphere, 188, 25–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.08.131
Karlsson, T. M., Vethaak, A. D., Almroth, B. C., Ariese, F., van Velzen, M., Hassellöv, M., & Leslie, H. A. (2017). Screening for microplastics in sediment, water, marine invertebrates and fish: Method development and microplastic accumulation. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 122, 403–408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.06.081
Kentin, E., & Kaarto, H. (2018). An EU ban on microplastics in cosmetic products and the right to regulate. Review of European, Comparative and International Environmental Law, 27, 254–266. https://doi.org/10.1111/reel.12269
Khan, N. A., Khan, S. U., Ahmed, S., Farooqi, I. H., Yousefi, M., Mohammadi, A. A., & Changani, F. (2020). Recent trends in disposal and treatment technologies of emerging-pollutants- A critical review. TrAC - Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 122, 115744. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2019.115744
Khatmullina, L., & Isachenko, I. (2017). Settling velocity of microplastic particles of regular shapes. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 114, 871–880. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.11.024
Kidd, K. A., Blanchfield, P. J., Mills, K. H., Palace, V. P., Evans, R. E., Lazorchak, J. M., & Flick, R. W. (2007). Collapse of a fish population after exposure to a synthetic estrogen. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104, 8897–8901. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0609568104
Kim, K. B., Kim, Y. W., Lim, S. K., Roh, T. H., Bang, D. Y., Choi, S. M., Lim, D. S., Kim, Y. J., Baek, S. H., Kim, M. K., Seo, H. S., Kim, M. H., Kim, H. S., Lee, J. Y., Kacew, S., & Lee, B. M. (2017). Risk assessment of zinc oxide, a cosmetic ingredient used as a UV filter of sunscreens. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health - Part B: Critical Reviews, 20, 155–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/10937404.2017.1290516
Koopman-Verhoeff, M. E., Gredvig-Ardito, C., Barker, D. H., Saletin, J. M., & Carskadon, M. A. (2020). Classifying pubertal development using child and parent report: Comparing the pubertal development scales to tanner staging. Journal of Adolescent Health, 66, 597–602. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.11.308
Kowalski, N., Reichardt, A. M., & Waniek, J. J. (2016). Sinking rates of microplastics and potential implications of their alteration by physical, biological, and chemical factors. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 109, 310–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.05.064
Krause, M., Frederiksen, H., Sundberg, K., Jørgensen, F. S., Jensen, L. N., Nørgaard, P., Jørgensen, C., Ertberg, P., Juul, A., Drzewiecki, K. T., Skakkebaek, N. E., & Andersson, A. M. (2018). Presence of benzophenones commonly used as UV filters and absorbers in paired maternal and fetal samples. Environment International, 110, 51–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2017.10.005
Kyaw, B. M., Champakalakshmi, R., Sakharkar, M. K., Lim, C. S., & Sakharkar, K. R. (2012). Biodegradation of low density polythene (LDPE) by Pseudomonas species. Indian Journal of Microbiology, 52, 411–419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12088-012-0250-6
Labille, J., Slomberg, D., Catalano, R., Robert, S., Apers-Tremelo, M. L., Boudenne, J. L., Manasfi, T., & Radakovitch, O. (2020). Assessing UV filter inputs into beach waters during recreational activity: A field study of three French Mediterranean beaches from consumer survey to water analysis. Science of the Total Environment, 706, 136010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136010
Lai, W. W. P., Chen, K. L., & Lin, A. Y. C. (2020). Solar photodegradation of the UV filter 4-methylbenzylidene camphor in the presence of free chlorine. Science of the Total Environment, 722, 137860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137860
Lam, C. S., Ramanathan, S., Carbery, M., Gray, K., Vanka, K. S., Maurin, C., Bush, R., & Palanisami, T. (2018). A comprehensive analysis of plastics and microplastic legislation worldwide. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 229, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-018-4002-z
Leiter, U., Keim, U., Garbe, C. (2020). Epidemiology of skin cancer: Update 2019. In Jörg Reichrath (Ed), Sunlight, Vitamin D and Skin Cancer (pp. 123–139). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46227-7_6
Li, V. W. T., Tsui, M. P. M., Chen, X., Hui, M. N. Y., Jin, L., Lam, R. H. W., Yu, R. M. K., Murphy, M. B., Cheng, J., Lam, P. K. S., & Cheng, S. H. (2016). Effects of 4-methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC) on neuronal and muscular development in zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23, 8275–8285. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6180-9
Lim, C. L., Koh, R. Y., Haw, T. Y., Boudville, L. A. (2015). Antioxidant activity of the sea bird nest (Eucheuma Cottonii) and Its radical scavenging effect on human keratinocytes. Journal of Medical and Bioengineering, 4, 461–465. https://doi.org/10.12720/jomb.4.6.461-465
Liu, L., Lou, J., & Fu, Q. (2016). Fas, Bcl-2, and caspase-3 protein and morphine addiction. Neuropathology of Drug Addictions and Substance Misuse, 3, 517–524. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800634-4.00052-4
Liu, Y. S., Ying, G. G., Shareef, A., & Kookana, R. S. (2011). Photostability of the UV filter benzophenone-3 and its effect on the photodegradation of benzotriazole in water. Environmental Chemistry, 8, 581–588. https://doi.org/10.1071/EN11068
Lu, D., Qu, Y., Shi, F., Feng, D., Tao, K., Gao, G., He, S., & Zhao, T. (2016). Activation of G protein-coupled estrogen receptor 1 (GPER-1) ameliorates blood-brain barrier permeability after global cerebral ischemia in ovariectomized rats. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 477, 209–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2016.06.044
Lusher, A. L., Tirelli, V., O’Connor, I., & Officer, R. (2015). Microplastics in Arctic polar waters: The first reported values of particles in surface and sub-surface samples. Scientific Reports, 5, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep14947
Mahlalela, L. C., Ngila, J. C., & Dlamini, L. N. (2017). Monitoring the fate and behavior of TiO2 nanoparticles: Simulated in a WWTP with industrial dye-stuff effluent according to OECD 303A. Journal of Environmental Science and Health - Part A Toxic/hazardous Substances and Environmental Engineering, 52, 794–803. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529.2017.1305176
Mao, F., He, Y., Kushmaro, A., & Gin, K. Y. H. (2017). Effects of benzophenone-3 on the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa. Aquatic Toxicology, 193, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2017.09.029
Matta, M. K., Florian, J., Zusterzeel, R., Pilli, N. R., Patel, V., Volpe, D. A., Yang, Y., Oh, L., Bashaw, E., Zineh, I., Sanabria, C., Kemp, S., Godfrey, A., Adah, S., Coelho, S., Wang, J., Furlong, L. A., Ganley, C., Michele, T., & Strauss, D. G. (2020). Effect of sunscreen application on plasma concentration of sunscreen active ingredients: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 323, 256–267. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2019.20747
Meinds, R. J., van der Steeg, A. F. W., Sloots, C. E. J., Witvliet, M. J., de Blaauw, I., van Gemert, W. G., Trzpis, M., & Broens, P. M. A. (2019). Long-term functional outcomes and quality of life in patients with Hirschsprung’s disease. British Journal of Surgery, 106, 499–507. https://doi.org/10.1002/bjs.11059
Minetto, D., Libralato, G., Marcomini, A., & Volpi Ghirardini, A. (2017). Potential effects of TiO2 nanoparticles and TiCl4 in saltwater to Phaeodactylum tricornutum and Artemia franciscana. Science of the Total Environment, 579, 1379–1386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.11.135
Molins-Delgado, D., del Olmo-Campos, M., & M., Valeta-Juan, G., Pleguezuelos-Hernández, V., Barceló, D., Díaz-Cruz, M.S.,. (2018). Determination of UV filters in human breast milk using turbulent flow chromatography and babies’ daily intake estimation. Environmental Research, 161, 532–539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.11.033
Molins-Delgado, D., Távora, J., Silvia Díaz-Cruz, M., & Barceló, D. (2017). UV filters and benzotriazoles in urban aquatic ecosystems: The footprint of daily use products. Science of the Total Environment, 601, 975–986. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.176
Moore, R. C., Loseto, L., Noel, M., Etemadifar, A., Brewster, J. D., MacPhee, S., Bendell, L., & Ross, P. S. (2020). Microplastics in beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) from the Eastern Beaufort Sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 150, 110723. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110723
Morlando, A., Cardillo, D., Devers, T., & Konstantinov, K. (2016). Titanium doped tin dioxide as potential UV filter with low photocatalytic activity for sunscreen products. Materials Letters, 171, 289–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2016.02.094
Nagler, J. J., Davis, T. L., Modi, N., Vijayan, M. M., & Schultz, I. (2010). Intracellular, not membrane, estrogen receptors control vitellogenin synthesis in the rainbow trout. General and Comparative Endocrinology, 167, 326–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ygcen.2010.03.022
Nakata, H., Murata, S., & Shinohara, R. (2009). Occurrence and concentrations of persistent personal care products, organic UV filters, in the marine environment. Interdisciplinary Studies in Environmental Chemistry, 1, 239–246.
Narla, S., & Lim, H. W. (2020). Sunscreen: FDA regulation, and environmental and health impact. Photochemical and Photobiological Sciences, 19, 66–70. https://doi.org/10.1039/c9pp00366e
Nava, V., & Leoni, B. (2021). A critical review of interactions between microplastics, microalgae and aquatic ecosystem function. Water Research, 188, 116476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.116476
Neal, C., Jarvie, H., Rowland, P., Lawler, A., Sleep, D., & Scholefield, P. (2011). Titanium in UK rural, agricultural and urban/industrial rivers: Geogenic and anthropogenic colloidal/sub-colloidal sources and the significance of within-river retention. Science of the Total Environment, 409, 1843–1853. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.12.021
O’Donovan, S., Mestre, N. C., Abel, S., Fonseca, T. G., Carteny, C. C., Willems, T., Prinsen, E., Cormier, B., Keiter, S. S., & Bebianno, M. J. (2020). Effects of the UV filter, oxybenzone, adsorbed to microplastics in the clam Scrobicularia plana. Science of the Total Environment, 733, 139102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139102
Osterwalder, U., Sohn, M., & Herzog, B. (2014). Global state of sunscreens. Photodermatology Photoimmunology and Photomedicine, 30, 62–80. https://doi.org/10.1111/phpp.12112
Paredes, E., Perez, S., Rodil, R., Quintana, J. B., & Beiras, R. (2014). Ecotoxicological evaluation of four UV filters using marine organisms from different trophic levels Isochrysis galbana, Mytilus galloprovincialis, Paracentrotus lividus, and Siriella armata. Chemosphere, 104, 44–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.10.053
Philippat, C., Mortamais, M., Chevrier, C., Petit, C., Calafat, A. M., Ye, X., Silva, M. J., Brambilla, C., Pin, I., Charles, M. A., Cordier, S., & Slama, R. (2012). Exposure to phthalates and phenols during pregnancy and offspring size at birth. Environmental Health Perspectives, 120, 464–470. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1103634
Pomierny, B., Krzyzanowska, W., Broniowska, Z., Strach, B., Bystrowska, B., Starek-Zwiechowicz, B., Maciejska, A., Skórkowska, A., Wesolowska, J., Walczak, M., & Budziszewska, B. (2019). Benzophenone-3 passes through the blood-brain barrier, increases the level of extracellular glutamate, and induces apoptotic processes in the hippocampus and frontal cortex of rats. Toxicological Sciences, 171, 485–500. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfz160
Rainieri, S., Conlledo, N., Larsen, B. K., Granby, K., & Barranco, A. (2018). Combined effects of microplastics and chemical contaminants on the organ toxicity of zebrafish (Danio rerio). Environmental Research, 162, 135–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.12.019
Republic of Palau. (2018). Office of the President, The Responsible Tourism Education Act of 2018, retrieved on November 5th, 2021, from https://www.palaugov.pw/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/RPPL-No.-10-30-re.-Responsible-Tourism-Education-Act-of-2018.pdf
Reisser, J., Slat, B., Noble, K., Du Plessis, K., Epp, M., Proietti, M., De Sonneville, J., Becker, T., & Pattiaratchi, C. (2015). The vertical distribution of buoyant plastics at sea: An observational study in the North Atlantic Gyre. Biogeosciences, 12, 1249–1256. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-12-1249-2015
Rodil, R., Moeder, M., Altenburger, R., & Schmitt-Jansen, M. (2009). Photostability and phytotoxicity of selected sunscreen agents and their degradation mixtures in water. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 395, 1513–1524. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-009-3113-1
Roth, K. A., & D’Sa, C. (2001). Apoptosis and brain development. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 7, 261–266. https://doi.org/10.1002/mrdd.1036
Salthammer, T. (2020). Emerging indoor pollutants. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 224, 113423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2019.113423
Santamaría, C. G., Abud, J. E., Porporato, M. M., Meyer, N., Zenclussen, A. C., Kass, L., & Rodríguez, H. A. (2019). The UV filter benzophenone 3, alters early follicular assembly in rat whole ovary cultures. Toxicology Letters, 303, 48–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2018.12.016
Schaumann, G. E., Philippe, A., Bundschuh, M., Metreveli, G., Klitzke, S., Rakcheev, D., Grün, A., Kumahor, S. K., Kühn, M., Baumann, T., Lang, F., Manz, W., Schulz, R., & Vogel, H. J. (2015). Understanding the fate and biological effects of Ag- and TiO2-nanoparticles in the environment: The quest for advanced analytics and interdisciplinary concepts. Science of the Total Environment, 535, 3–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.10.035
Schlumpf, M., Jarry, H., Wuttke, W., Ma, R., & Lichtensteiger, W. (2004). Estrogenic activity and estrogen receptor β binding of the UV filter 3-benzylidene camphor: Comparison with 4-methylbenzylidene camphor. Toxicology, 199, 109–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2004.02.015
Schlumpf, M., Kypke, K., Wittassek, M., Angerer, J., Mascher, H., Mascher, D., Vökt, C., Birchler, M., & Lichtensteiger, W. (2010). Exposure patterns of UV filters, fragrances, parabens, phthalates, organochlor pesticides, PBDEs, and PCBs in human milk: Correlation of UV filters with use of cosmetics. Chemosphere, 81, 1171–1183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.09.079
Schneider, S. L., & Lim, H. W. (2019a). Review of environmental effects of oxybenzone and other sunscreen active ingredients. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 80, 266–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2018.06.033
Schneider, S. L., & Lim, H. W. (2019b). A review of inorganic UV filters zinc oxide and titanium dioxide. Photodermatology Photoimmunology and Photomedicine, 35, 442–446. https://doi.org/10.1111/phpp.12439
Sehar, S., Naz, I. (2016). Role of the biofilms in wastewater treatment. In Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran and Nooruddin Thajuddin (Eds.), Microbial Biofilms - Importance and Applications (pp.121–144). IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/63499
Serpone, N., Dondi, D., & Albini, A. (2007). Inorganic and organic UV filters: Their role and efficacy in sunscreens and suncare products. Inorganica Chimica Acta, 360, 794–802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ica.2005.12.057
Soler de la Vega, A. C., Cruz-Alcalde, A., Mazón, C. S., Martí, C. B., Diaz-Cruz, M. S. (2021). Nano-TiO2 phototoxicity in fresh and seawater: Daphnia magna and Artemia sp. as proxies. Water, 13, 55. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13010055
Song, S., He, Y., Huang, Y., Huang, X., Guo, Y., Zhu, H., Kannan, K., & Zhang, T. (2020). Occurrence and transfer of benzophenone-type ultraviolet filters from the pregnant women to fetuses. Science of the Total Environment, 726, 138503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138503
Souza, C., & Maia Campos, P. M. B. G. (2017). Development of a HPLC method for determination of four UV filters in sunscreen and its application to skin penetration studies. Biomedical Chromatography, 31, e4029. https://doi.org/10.1002/bmc.4029
Suleiman, M., Schröder, C., Kuhn, M., Simon, A., Stahl, A., Frerichs, H., & Antranikian, G. (2019). Microbial biofilm formation and degradation of octocrylene, a UV absorber found in sunscreen. Communications Biology, 2, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-019-0679-9
Szylberg, L., Marszalek, A. (2014). Diagnosis of Hirschsprung’s disease with particular emphasis on histopathology. A systematic review of current literature. Przeglad Gastroenterologiczny, 9, 264. https://doi.org/10.5114/pg.2014.46160
Tang, R., Chen, M. J., Ding, G. D., Chen, X. J., Han, X. M., Zhou, K., Chen, L. M., Xia, Y. K., Tian, Y., & Wang, X. R. (2013). Associations of prenatal exposure to phenols with birth outcomes. Environmental Pollution, 178, 115–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.03.023
Tang, Y., Cai, R., Cao, D., Kong, X., & Lu, Y. (2018). Photocatalytic production of hydroxyl radicals by commercial TiO2 nanoparticles and phototoxic hazard identification. Toxicology, 406, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2018.05.010
Tapper, M. A., Denny, J. S., Serrano, J. A., Kolanczyk, R. C., Sheedy, B. R., Overend, G. M., Hornung, M. W., & Schmieder, P. K. (2019). Phenone, hydroxybenzophenone, and branched phenone estrogen receptor binding and vitellogenin agonism in rainbow trout in vitro models. Applied in Vitro Toxicology, 5, 62–74. https://doi.org/10.1089/aivt.2018.0008
Thia, E., Chou, P. H., & Chen, P. J. (2020). In vitro and in vivo screening for environmentally friendly benzophenone-type UV filters with beneficial tyrosinase inhibition activity. Water Research, 185, 116208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.116208
Tsui, M. M. P., Leung, H. W., Wai, T. C., Yamashita, N., Taniyasu, S., Liu, W., Lam, P. K. S., & Murphy, M. B. (2014). Occurrence, distribution and ecological risk assessment of multiple classes of UV filters in surface waters from different countries. Water Research, 67, 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2014.09.013
Van Der Meer, T. P., Artacho-Cordón, F., Swaab, D. F., Struik, D., Makris, K. C., Wolffenbuttel, B. H. R., Frederiksen, H., & Van Vliet-Ostaptchouk, J. V. (2017). Distribution of non-persistent endocrine disruptors in two different regions of the human brain. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14, 1059. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14091059
Vasilachi, I. C., Asiminicesei, D. M., Fertu, D. I., & Gavrilescu, M. (2021). Occurrence and fate of emerging pollutants in water environment and options for their removal. Water, 13, 181. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13020181
Vassalle, L., Sunyer-Caldú, A., Díaz-Cruz, M. S., Arashiro, L. T., Ferrer, I., Garfí, M., & García-Galán, M. J. (2020). Behavior of UV filters, UV blockers and pharmaceuticals in high rate algal ponds treating urban wastewater. Water, 12, 2658. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12102658
Vela-Soria, F., Jiménez-Díaz, I., Rodríguez-Gómez, R., Zafra-Gómez, A., Ballesteros, O., Navalón, A., Vílchez, J. L., Fernández, M. F., & Olea, N. (2011). Determination of benzophenones in human placental tissue samples by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Talanta, 85, 1848–1855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2011.07.030
Vione, D., Calza, P., Galli, F., Fabbri, D., Santoro, V., & Medana, C. (2015). The role of direct photolysis and indirect photochemistry in the environmental fate of ethylhexyl methoxy cinnamate (EHMC) in surface waters. Science of the Total Environment, 537, 58–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.08.002
Wagemaker, T. A. L., Silva, S. A. M., Leonardi, G. R., & Maia Campos, P. M. B. G. (2015). Green Coffea arabica L: Seed oil influences the stability and protective effects of topical formulations. Industrial Crops and Products, 63, 34–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.09.045
Wang, L., Asimakopoulos, A. G., & Kannan, K. (2015). Accumulation of 19 environmental phenolic and xenobiotic heterocyclic aromatic compounds in human adipose tissue. Environment International, 78, 45–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2015.02.015
Wang, J., Nabi, M. M., Mohanty, S. K., Afrooz, A. N., Cantando, E., Aich, N., & Baalousha, M. (2020). Detection and quantification of engineered particles in urban runoff. Chemosphere, 248, 126070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126070
Wnuk, A., & Kajta, M. (2017). Steroid and xenobiotic receptor signalling in apoptosis and autophagy of the nervous system. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 18, 2394. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18112394
Wnuk, A., Rzemieniec, J., Litwa, E., Lasoń, W., & Kajta, M. (2018). Prenatal exposure to benzophenone-3 (BP-3) induces apoptosis, disrupts estrogen receptor expression and alters the epigenetic status of mouse neurons. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 182, 106–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.04.016
Wojciechowski, K., Zukowska, G. Z., Korczagin, I., & Malanowski, P. (2015). Effect of TiO2 on UV stability of polymeric binder films used in waterborne facade paints. Progress in Organic Coatings, 85, 123–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.porgcoat.2015.04.002
Wolff, M. S., Engel, S. M., Berkowitz, G. S., Ye, X., Silva, M. J., Zhu, C., Wetmur, J., & Calafat, A. M. (2008). Prenatal phenol and phthalate exposures and birth outcomes. Environmental Health Perspectives, 116, 1092–1097. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.11007
Wong, S. W. Y., Leung, P. T. Y., Djurišić, A. B., & Leung, K. M. Y. (2010). Toxicities of nano zinc oxide to five marine organisms: Influences of aggregate size and ion solubility. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 396, 609–618. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-009-3249-z
Wu, C., Zhang, K., Huang, X., & Liu, J. (2016). Sorption of pharmaceuticals and personal care products to polyethylene debris. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23, 8819–8826. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6121-7
Xu, H., Yang, J., Wang, Y., Jiang, Q., Chen, H., & Song, H. (2008). Exposure to 17α-ethynylestradiol impairs reproductive functions of both male and female zebrafish (Danio rerio). Aquatic Toxicology, 88, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2008.01.020
Yamamoto, F. Y., Garcia, J. R. E., Kupsco, A., & Oliveira Ribeiro, C. A. (2017). Vitellogenin levels and others biomarkers show evidences of endocrine disruption in fish species from Iguaçu River - Southern Brazil. Chemosphere, 186, 88–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.07.111
Zhang, A. P., & Sun, Y. P. (2004). Photocatalytic killing effect of TiO2 nanoparticles on Ls-174-t human colon carcinoma cells. World Journal of Gastroenterology, 10, 3191. https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v10.i21.3191
Zhang, P., Lu, G., Liu, J., Yan, Z., Dong, H., & Zhou, R. (2021). Biodegradation of 2-ethylhexyl-4-methoxycinnamate in river sediments and its impact on microbial communities. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 104, 307–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2020.12.013
Zhang, Q., Ma, X., Dzakpasu, M., & Wang, X. C. (2017). Evaluation of ecotoxicological effects of benzophenone UV filters: Luminescent bacteria toxicity, genotoxicity and hormonal activity. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 142, 338–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.04.027
Zhang, Q. Y., Ma, X. Y., Wang, X. C., & Ngo, H. H. (2016). Assessment of multiple hormone activities of a UV-filter (octocrylene) in zebrafish (Danio rerio). Chemosphere, 159, 433–441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.06.037
Zhao, S., Miao, D., Zhu, K., Tao, K., Wang, C., Sharma, V. K., & Jia, H. (2019). Interaction of benzo[a]pyrene with Cu(II)-montmorillonite: Generation and toxicity of environmentally persistent free radicals and reactive oxygen species. Environment International, 129, 154–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.05.037
Zhong, X., Downs, C. A., Li, Y., Zhang, Z., Li, Y., Liu, B., & Li, Q. (2020). Comparison of toxicological effects of oxybenzone, avobenzone, octocrylene, and octinoxate sunscreen ingredients on cucumber plants (Cucumis sativus L.). Science of the total Environment, 714, 136879.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.136879
Zhou, F., Dong, H., Liu, Y., Yan, L., Sun, C., Hao, P., Liu, Y., Zhai, J., & Liu, Y. (2018). Raloxifene, a promising estrogen replacement, limits TDP-25 cell death by enhancing autophagy and suppressing apoptosis. Brain Research Bulletin, 140, 281–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2018.05.017
Zhu, L., Wang, H., Chen, B., Sun, X., Qu, K., & Xia, B. (2019). Microplastic ingestion in deep-sea fish from the South China Sea. Science of the Total Environment, 677, 493–501. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.04.380
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Conceptualisation LdM; Writing-Original Draft LdM; Writing-Review and Editing KH, AA and SH; Supervision KH and SH.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Conflict of interest/Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
de Miranda, L., Harvey, K., Ahmed, A. et al. UV-filter pollution: current concerns and future prospects. Environ Monit Assess 193, 840 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09626-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09626-6