Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Natural Mentoring Processes Deter Externalizing Problems Among Rural African American Emerging Adults: A Prospective Analysis

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
American Journal of Community Psychology

Abstract

A 3-wave model linking natural mentoring relationships to externalizing behavior was tested with 345 rural African American emerging adults in their final year of high school. Structural equation models were executed linking multi-informant reports of mentor-emerging adult relationship quality with youths’ externalizing behavior 18 months later. Consistent with our primary hypotheses, emerging adults whose relationships with their natural mentors were characterized by instrumental and emotional support and affectively positive interactions reported lower levels of anger, rule-breaking behavior, and aggression. These effects emerged independent of the influences of family support and youth gender. Two intrapersonal processes, a future orientation and self-regulation, emerged as mediators of the influence of natural mentoring relationships. The influence of natural mentors was most pronounced for emerging adults experiencing high levels of life stress.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Achenbach, T. A., & Rescorla, L. A. (2003). Manual for the ASEBA adult forms and profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aquilino, W. S. (1997). From adolescent to young adult: A prospective study of parent-child relations during the transition to adulthood. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 59, 670–686. doi:10.2307/353953.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 469–480. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.5.469.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beam, M. R., Chen, C., & Greenberger, E. (2002). The nature of adolescents’ relationships with their “very important” nonparental adults. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 305–325. doi:10.1023/A:1014641213440.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biafora, F., & Zimmerman, R. (1998). Developmental patterns of African-American adolescent drug use. In W. A. Vega & A. G. Gil (Eds.), Drug use and ethnicity in early adolescence. New York, NY: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boatright, S. R. (2005). The Georgia County Guide: 2006. Athens, GA: Center for Agribusiness and Economic Development.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bolland, J. M. (2003). Hopelessness and risk behaviour among adolescents living in high-poverty inner-city neighbourhoods. Journal of Adolescence, 26, 145–158. doi:10.1016/S0140-1971(02)00136-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boyd-Franklin, N. (1989). Black families in therapy: A multisystems approach. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brody, G. H., Chen, Y.-f., Murry, V. M., Ge, X., Simons, R. L., Gibbons, F. X., et al. (2006). Perceived discrimination and the adjustment of African American youths: A five-year longitudinal analysis with contextual moderation effects. Child Development, 77, 1170–1189. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00927.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brody, G. H., Dorsey, S., Forehand, R., & Armistead, L. (2002). Unique and protective contributions of parenting and classroom processes to the adjustment of African American children living in single-parent families. Child Development, 73, 274–286. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00405.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brody, G. H., Flor, D. L., Hollett-Wright, N., & McCoy, J. K. (1998). Children’s development of alcohol use norms: Contributions of parent and sibling norms, children’s temperaments, and parent-child discussions. Journal of Family Psychology, 12, 209–219. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.12.2.209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brody, G. H., Murry, V. M., Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F. X., Molgaard, V., McNair, L., et al. (2004). The Strong African American Families program: Translating research into prevention programming. Child Development, 75, 900–917. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00713.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, B. M. (2001). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications and programming. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook, B. J., & Códova, D. I. (2006). Minorities in higher education: Twenty-second annual status report. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darling, N., Hamilton, S., Toyokawa, T., & Matsuda, S. (2002). Naturally occurring mentoring in Japan and the United States: Social roles and correlates. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 245–270. doi:10.1023/A:1014684928461.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dillon, C. O., Liem, J. H., & Gore, S. (2003). Navigating disrupted transitions: Getting back on track after dropping out of high school. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 73, 429–440. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.73.4.429.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DuBois, D. L., Holloway, B. E., Valentine, J. C., & Cooper, H. (2002). Effectiveness of mentoring programs for youth: A meta-analytic review. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 157–198. doi:10.1023/A:1014628810714.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ge, X., Lorenz, F. O., Conger, R. D., Elder, G. H., & Simons, R. L. (1994). Trajectories of stressful life events and depressive symptoms during adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 30, 467–483. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.30.4.467.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gibbons, F. X., Gerrard, M., Cleveland, M. J., Wills, T. A., & Brody, G. (2004). Perceived discrimination and substance use in African American parents and their children: A panel study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 517–529. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.4.517.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gore, S., & Aseltine, R. H., Jr. (2003). Race and ethnic differences in depressed mood following the transition from high school. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44, 370–390. doi:10.2307/1519785.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Green, R.-J., & Werner, P. D. (1996). Intrusiveness and closeness-caregiving: Rethinking the concept of family “enmeshment”. Family Process, 35, 115–136. doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.1996.00115.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberger, E., Chen, C., & Beam, M. R. (1998). The role of “very important” nonparental adults in adolescent development. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 27, 321–343. doi:10.1023/A:1022803120166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, J. B., & Rhodes, J. E. (2002). The test of time: Predictors and effects of duration in youth mentoring relationships. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 199–219. doi:10.1023/A:1014680827552.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Halperin, S. (Ed.). (1998). The forgotten half revisited: American youth and young families, 1988–2008. Washington, DC: American Youth Policy Forum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holz, V. J., & Tienda, M. (1998). Education and employment in a diverse society: Generating inequality through the school to work transition. In N. Denton & S. Tolnay (Eds.), American diversity: A demographic challenge for the twenty-first century (pp. 249–281). Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Humphrey, L. L. (1982). Children’s and teachers’ perspectives on children’s self control: The development of two rating scales. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50, 624–633. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.50.5.624.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hurd, N., & Zimmerman, M. (2010). Natural mentors, mental health, and risk behaviors: A longitudinal analysis of African American adolescents transitioning into adulthood. American Journal of Community Psychology, 46, 36–48. doi:10.1007/s10464-010-9325-x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keough, K. A., Zimbardo, P. G., & Boyd, J. N. (1999). Who’s smoking, drinking, and using drugs? Time perspective as a predictor of substance use. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 21, 149–164. doi:10.1207/15324839951036498.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klaw, E. L., & Rhodes, J. E. (1995). Mentor relationships and the career development of pregnant and parenting African-American teenagers. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19, 551–562. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1995.tb00092.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klaw, E. L., Rhodes, J. E., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (2003). Natural mentors in the lives of African American adolescent mothers: Tracking relationships over time. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 32, 223–232. doi:10.1023/A:1022551721565.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kogan, S. M., Brody, G. H., Gibbons, F. X., Chen, Y.-f., Grange, C. M., Simons, R. L., et al. (2010). Mechanisms of family impact on African American adolescents’ HIV-related behavior. Journal of Research on Adolescence. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00672.x.

  • Kogan, S. M., Luo, Z., Murry, V. M., & Brody, G. H. (2005). Risk and protective factors for substance use among African American high school dropouts. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 19, 382–391. doi:10.1037/0893-164x.19.4.382.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., Burt, K. B., Roisman, G. I., Obradovic, J., Long, J. D., & Tellegen, A. (2004). Resources and resilience in the transition to adulthood: Continuity and change. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 1071–1094.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., & Coatsworth, J. D. (1998). The development of competence in favorable and unfavorable environments: Lessons from research on successful children. American Psychologist, 53, 205–220.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parra, G. R., DuBois, D. L., Neville, H. A., Pugh-Lilly, A. O., & Pavinelli, N. (2002). Mentoring relationships for youth: Investigation of a process-oriented model. Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 367–388. doi:10.1002/jcop.10016.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pettit, B., & Western, B. (2004). Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration. American Sociological Review, 69, 151–169. doi:10.1177/000312240406900201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prinz, R. J., Foster, S., Kent, R. N., & O’Leary, K. D. (1979). Multivariate assessment of conflict in distressed and nondistressed mother-adolescent dyads. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 12, 691–700. doi:10.1901/jaba.1979.12-691.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Proctor, B. D., & Dalaker, J. (2003). Poverty in the United States: 2002 (Current Population Reports P60-222). Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of the Census. Retrieved from http://www.dlc.org/documents/Census_2002_Poverty.pdf.

  • Rhodes, J. E., Bogat, G. A., Roffman, J., Edelman, P., & Galasso, L. (2002). Youth mentoring in perspective: Introduction to the special issue. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 149–156. doi:10.1023/A:1014676726644.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, J. E., Contreras, J. M., & Mangelsdorf, S. C. (1994). Natural mentor relationships among Latina adolescent mothers: Psychological adjustment, moderating processes, and the role of early parental acceptance. American Journal of Community Psychology, 22, 211–227. doi:10.1007/BF02506863.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, J. E., Ebert, L., & Fischer, K. (1992). Natural mentors: An overlooked resource in the social networks of young, African American mothers. American Journal of Community Psychology, 20, 445–461. doi:10.1007/BF00937754.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, R. N., & Bryan, A. (2004). Relationships between future orientation, impulsive sensation seeking, and risk behavior among adjudicated adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19, 428–445. doi:10.1177/0743558403258860.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (1985). Resilience in the face of adversity: Protective factors and resistance to psychiatric disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 598–611. doi:10.1192/bjp.147.6.598.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schulenberg, J. E., Sameroff, A. J., & Cicchetti, D. (2004). The transition to adulthood as a critical juncture in the course of psychopathology and mental health. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 799–806. doi:10.1017/S0954579404040015.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer, M. B., & Depree, D. (1996). African American youths’ ecocultural challenges and psychosocial opportunities: An alternative analysis of problem behavior outcomes. In D. Cicchetti & S. L. Toth (Eds.), Adolescence: Opportunities and challenges (Vol. 7, pp. 259–282). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spielberger, C. D. (1999). State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2: Professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sroufe, L. A., & Fleeson, J. (1986). Attachment and the construction of relationships. In W. Rubin & Z. Hartup (Eds.), Relationships and development (pp. 51–71). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, R. D., Casten, R., & Flickinger, S. M. (1993). Influence of kinship social support on the parenting experiences and psychosocial adjustment of African-American adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 29, 382–388. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.29.2.382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1982). Vulnerable but invincible: A longitudinal study of resilient children and youth. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1992). Overcoming the odds: High risk children from birth to adulthood. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wills, T. A., Blechman, E. A., & McNamara, G. (1996). Family support, coping, and competence. In E. M. Hetherington & E. A. Blechman (Eds.), Stress, coping, and resiliency in children and families (pp. 107–133). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wills, T. A., Sandy, J. M., & Yaeger, A. M. (2001). Time perspective and early-onset substance use: A model based on stress-coping theory. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 15, 118–125. doi:10.1037/0893-164X.15.2.118.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wills, T. A., Vaccaro, D., & McNamara, G. (1992). The role of life events, family support, and competence in adolescent substance use: A test of vulnerability and protective factors. American Journal of Community Psychology, 20, 349–374. doi:10.1007/BF00937914.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, J. P., & Cullen, F. T. (2004). Employment, peers, and life-course transitions. Justice Quarterly, 21, 183–205. doi:10.1080/07418820400095781.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimbardo, P. G., & Boyd, J. N. (1999). Putting time in perspective: A valid, reliable individual-differences metric. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1271–1288. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, M. A., Bingenheimer, J. B., & Notaro, P. C. (2002). Natural mentors and adolescent resiliency: A study with urban youth. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 221–243. doi:10.1023/A:1014632911622.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by Award Number R01-DA019230 from the National Institute on Drug Abuse and by Award Number 6773 from the W. T. Grant Foundation. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institute on Drug Abuse, the National Institutes of Health, or the W. T. Grant Foundation. We wish to acknowledge the assistance of Ms. Eileen Neubaum-Carlan in the preparation of this manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Child and Family Development and Center for Family Research, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA

    Steven M. Kogan

  2. Center for Family Research, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA

    Gene H. Brody & Yi-fu Chen

Authors
  1. Steven M. Kogan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Gene H. Brody
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Yi-fu Chen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Steven M. Kogan.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Kogan, S.M., Brody, G.H. & Chen, Yf. Natural Mentoring Processes Deter Externalizing Problems Among Rural African American Emerging Adults: A Prospective Analysis. Am J Community Psychol 48, 272–283 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-011-9425-2

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-011-9425-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation