Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Enhancing Parenting Skills Among Nonresident African American Fathers as a Strategy for Preventing Youth Risky Behaviors

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
American Journal of Community Psychology

Abstract

This study evaluated the effectiveness of a theoretically based, culturally specific family intervention designed to prevent youth risky behaviors by influencing the parenting attitudes and behaviors of nonresident African American fathers and the parent–child interactions, intentions to avoid violence, and aggressive behaviors of their preadolescent sons. A sample of 158 intervention and 129 comparison group families participated. ANCOVA results indicated that the intervention was promising for enhancing parental monitoring, communication about sex, intentions to communicate, race-related socialization practices, and parenting skills satisfaction among fathers. The intervention was also beneficial for sons who reported more monitoring by their fathers, improved communication about sex, and increased intentions to avoid violence. The intervention was not effective in reducing aggressive behaviors among sons. Findings are discussed from a family support perspective, including the need to involve nonresident African American fathers in youth risky behavior prevention efforts.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alan Guttmacher Institute. (2006). Facts on American teens’ sexual and reproductive health. New York: AGI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavior change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blake, S. M., Simkin, L., Ledsky, R., Perkins, C., & Calabrese, J. M. (2001). Effects of parent-child communications intervention on young adolescents’ risk for early onset of sexual intercourse. Family Planning Perspectives, 33, 52–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blum, R. W., Beuhring, T., Shew, M. L., Bearinger, L. H., Sieving, R. E., & Resnick, M. D. (2000). The effects of race/ethnicity, income, and family structure on adolescent risky behaviors. American Journal of Public Health, 90, 1879–1884.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bosworth, K., Espelage, D. L., & Simon, T. R. (1999). Factors associated with bullying behavior in middle school students. Journal of Early Adolescence, 23, 341–362.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowman, P. J., & Sanders, R. (1998). Unmarried African American fathers: A comparative life span analysis. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 29, Special Issue: Comparative perspectives on Black family life, pp 39–56.

  • Braver, S. L., & Griffin, W. A. (2000). Engaging fathers in the post-divorce family. Marriage and Family Review: Fatherhood: Research, Interventions and Policies, 29, 247–267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brody, G. H., Murry, V. M., Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F. X., Molgaard, V., McNair, L., et al. (2004). The strong African American families program: Translating research into prevention programming. Child Development, 75, 900–917.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell, C. H., Sellers, R. M., Bernat, D. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2004a). Racial identity, parental support, and alcohol use in a sample of academically at-risk African American high school students. American Journal of Community Psychology, 34, 71–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell, C. H., Wright, J. C., Zimmerman, M. A., Walsemann, K. M., Williams, D., & Isichei, P. A. C. (2004b). Enhancing adolescent health behaviors through strengthening non-resident father-son relationships: A model for intervention with African American families. Health Education Research: Theory and Practice, 19, 644–656.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coley, R. L., & Medeiros, B. L. (2007). Reciprocal longitudinal relations between nonresident father involvement and adolescent delinquency. Child Development, 78, 132–147.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • D’Amico, E. J., Neilands, T. B., & Zanbarano, R. (2001). Power analysis for multivariate and repeated measures designs: A flexible approach using the SPSS MANOVA procedure. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 33, 479–484.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dancy, B. L., Crittenden, K. S., & Talashek, M. (2006). Mothers’ effectiveness as HIV risk reduction educators for adolescent daughters. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 17, 218–239.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeLamater, J., & Friedrich, W. N. (2002). Human sexual development. The Journal of Sex Research, 39, 10–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DiIorio, C., McCarty, F., & Denzmore, P. (2006a). An exploration of social cognitive theory mediators of father-son communication about sex. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 31, 917–927.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DiIorio, C., et al. (2006b). Keeping’ it R.E.A.L. results of a mother-adolescent HIV prevention program. Nursing Research, 55, 43–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dittus, P. J., Jaccard, J., & Gordon, V. (1997). The impact of African American fathers on adolescent sexual behavior. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 26, 445–465.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fagan, J., & Stevenson, H. C. (2002). An experimental study of an empowerment-based intervention for African American head start fathers. Family Relations, 51, 191–198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forehand, R., Miller, K. S., Dutra, R., & Chance, M. W. (1997). Role of parenting in adolescent deviant behavior: Replication across and within two ethnic groups. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 65, 1036–1041.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fox-Wasylyshyn, S. M., & El-Masri, M. M. (2005). Focus on research methods: Handling missing data in self-report measures. Research in Nursing & Health, 28, 488–494.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Griffin, K. W., Botvin, G. L., Scheier, L. M., Diaz, T., & Miller, N. L. (2000). Parenting practices as predictors of substance use, delinquency, and aggression among urban minority youth: Moderating effects of family structure and gender. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 14, 174–184.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, A. O., Wilson, M. N., Pine, C. H., Chan, S. Q., & Buriel, R. (1990). Family ecologies of ethnic minority children. Child Development, 61, 347–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haugaard, J. J. (2001). Problematic behaviors during adolescence. New York: McGraw Hill Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • HEART of OKC Website. (2002). Reducing teen pregnancy in Oklahoma: Focusing on older teens (18–19 years old). The Healthy, Empowered and Responsible Teens of Oklahoma City (HEART OKC). http://www.health.state.ok.us/program/hpromo/medj/oteens.html.

  • Henry, D. B., Tolan, P. H., & Gorman-Smith, D. (2001). Longitudinal family and peer group effects on violence and nonviolent delinquency. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 172–186.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herrenkohl, T. I., Guo, J., Kosterman, R., Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., & Smith, B. H. (2001). Early adolescent predictors of youth violence as mediators of childhood risks. Journal of Early Adolescence, 21, 447–469.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, D., & Chen, L. (1997). When and what parents tell children about race: An examination of race-related socialization among African American families. Applied Developmental Science, 1, 200–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Israel, B. A., Eng, E., Schulz, A. J., & Parker, E. A. (Eds.). (2005). Methods in community-based participatory research for health. San Francisco, CA: Josey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Israel, B. A., & Round, K. A. (1987). Social networks and social support: A synthesis for health educators. Advances on Health Education and Promotion, 2, 311–351.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacobson, K. C., & Crockett, L. J. (2000). Parental monitoring and adolescent adjustment: An ecological perspective. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 10, 65–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joshi, N. P., & Battle, S. F. (1990). Adolescent fathers: An approach for intervention. Journal of Health and Social Policy, 1, 17–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kirby, D., & Miller, B. (2002). Interventions designed to promote parent-teen communication about sexuality. New Directions for Child & Adolescent Development, 97, 93–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kosterman, R., Graham, J. W., Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. E., Herrenkohl, T. I., & Todd, I. (2001). Childhood risk factors for persistence of violence in the transition to adulthood: A social development perspective. Violence & Victims: Special Issue: Developmental Perspectives on Violence and Victimization, 16, 355–369.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kumpfer, K. L., Alvarudo, R., Smith, P., & Bellany, N. (2002). Cultural sensitivity and adaptation in family-based prevention interventions. Prevention Science, 3, 241–246.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lefkowitz, E., Sigman, S., & Au, T. K. (2000). Helping mothers discuss sexuality and AIDS with adolescents. Child Development, 71, 1383–1394.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li, X., Feligelman, S., & Stanton, B. (2000). Perceived parental monitoring and health risky behaviors among urban low-income African American children and adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 27, 43–48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, P. (2000). The African American church and African American parents: Examining relationships between racial socialization practices and racial identity attitudes. Unpublished Dissertation, Michigan State University.

  • Montano, D. E., Kasprzyk, D., & Taplin, S. H. (1997). The theory of reasoned action and the theory of planned behavior. In K. Glanz, F. M. Lewis, & B. K. Rimer (Eds.), Health behavior and health education: Theory, research and practice (2nd ed., pp. 85–112). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, K. A., Peterson, J. L., & Furstenberg, F. F. (1986). Parental attitudes and the occurrence of early sexual activity. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 48, 777–782.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nolin, M. J., & Peterson, K. K. (1992). Gender differences in parent-child communication about sexuality: An exploratory study. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7, 59–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paschall, M. J., & Hubbard, M. L. (1998). Effects of neighborhood and family stressors on African American male adolescents’ self-worth and propensity for violent behavior. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 825–831.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Potts, R. (2003). Emancipatory education versus school-based prevention in African American communities. American Journal of Community Psychology, 31, 173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seaton, E. K., Caldwell, C. H., Sellers, R. M., & Jackson, J. S. (2008). The prevalence of perceived discrimination among African American and Caribbean black youth. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1288–1297.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sellers, R. M., Copeland-Linder, N., Martin, P. P., & Lewis, L. R. (2006). Racial identity matters: The relationship between racial discrimination and psychological functioning in African American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 187–216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sellers, R. M., Rowley, S. A. J., Chavous, T. M., Shelton, J. N., & Smith, M. A. (1998). Multidimensional inventory of black identity: A preliminary investigation of reliability and construct validity. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 73, 805–815.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, G., Farrell, M. P., & Barnes, G. M. (1996). The effects of single-mother families and nonresident fathers on delinquency and substance abuse in Black and White adolescents. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 58(4), 884–894.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornberry, T., Smith, C., & Howard, G. (1997). Risk factors for teenage fatherhood. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 59, 505–522.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thornton, M., Chatters, L., Taylor, R., & Allen, W. (1990). Sociodemographic and environmental correlates of racial socialization by Black parents. Child Development, 61, 401–409.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thornton, T. N., Craft, C. A., Dahlberg, L. L., Lynch, B. S., & Baer, K. (2002). Best practices of youth violence prevention: A sourcebook for community action. Atlanta, GA: Division of Violence Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ullman, J., & Bentler, P. (2003). Structural equation modeling. In I. B. Weiner, D. K. Freedheim, J. Schinka, et al. (Eds.), Research methods in psychology, volume #2: Handbook of psychology (pp. 607–634). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • USDHHS. (2001). Youth violence: A report of the surgeon general. www.surgeongeneral.gov.

  • Walker-Barnes, C. J., & Mason, C. A. (2001). Ethnic differences in the effect of parenting on gang involvement and gang delinquency: A longitudinal, hierarchical linear modeling perspective. Child Development, 72, 1814–1831.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Way, N., & Gillman, D. A. (2000). Early adolescent girls’ perceptions of their relationships with their fathers: A qualitative investigation. Journal of Early Adolescence, 20, 309–331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. R., Neighbors, H. W., & Jackson, J. S. (2003). Racial/ethnic discrimination and health: Findings from community studies. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 200–208.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wills, T. A., Ainette, M., Mendoza, D., Gibbons, F. X., & Brody, G. H. (2007). Self-control, symptomatology, and substance use precursors: Test of a theoretical model in a community sample of 9-year-old children. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 21, 205–215.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wills, T. A., Gibbons, F. X., Gerrard, M., Murry, V. M., & Brody, G. H. (2003). Family communication and religiosity related to substance use and sexual behavior in early adolescence: A test for pathways through self-control and prototype perceptions. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 17, 312–323.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Winters, K. C., & Zenilman, J. M. (1994). Simple screening instruments for outreach for alcohol and other drug abuse and infectious diseases: Treatment improvement protocol (TIP) series. US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center Substance Abuse Treatment.

  • Zimmerman, M. A., Salem, D. A., & Notaro, P. C. (2000). Make room for daddy II: The positive effects of fathers’ role in adolescent development. In R. Taylor & L. Wang (Eds.), Resilience across contexts: Family, work, culture, and community (pp. 233–253). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, M. A., Steinman, K., & Rowe, K. (1998). Violence among urban African American adolescents: The protective effects of parent support. In S. Oskamp & B. Arriaga (Eds.), Addressing community problems: Research and intervention (pp. 78–103). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research was funded by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention through Grant #R06/CCR521580 to the first author. Partial support also was provided through the Community Foundation of Flint, MI. The authors would like to thank members of the Project’s Steering Committee for their insightful and dedicated work on this project, Dr. Marc Zimmerman for his vision and support of this project, and the many fathers and sons who participated in many aspects of this study. MS#2008-078 R.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Public Health, University of Michigan, 109 Observatory Street, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2029, USA

    Cleopatra Howard Caldwell

  2. Program for Research on Black Americans, Research Center for Group Dynamics, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

    Jane Rafferty

  3. Prevention Research Center of Michigan, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

    Thomas M. Reischl

  4. Flint Odyssey House, 1225 Martin Luther King Drive, Flint, MI, USA

    E. Hill De Loney

  5. Department of Psychiatry, Prevention Research Center of Michigan, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

    Cassandra L. Brooks

Authors
  1. Cleopatra Howard Caldwell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jane Rafferty
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Thomas M. Reischl
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. E. Hill De Loney
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Cassandra L. Brooks
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Cleopatra Howard Caldwell.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Caldwell, C.H., Rafferty, J., Reischl, T.M. et al. Enhancing Parenting Skills Among Nonresident African American Fathers as a Strategy for Preventing Youth Risky Behaviors. Am J Community Psychol 45, 17–35 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-009-9290-4

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-009-9290-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation