Abstract
The effectiveness of a community-based advocacy and learning intervention for Hmong refugees was assessed using a comprehensive, multi-method strategy, which included a within-group longitudinal design with four data collection points and in-depth qualitative recruitment and post-intervention interviews. The intervention's impact on five aspects of refugee well-being was examined: Participants' psychological well-being, quality of life, access to resources, English proficiency, and knowledge for the U.S. citizenship exam. Twenty-eight Hmong adults and 27 undergraduate students participated together in the intervention, which had two major components: (1) Learning Circles, which involved cultural exchange and one-on-one learning opportunities for Hmong adults, and (2) an advocacy component that involved undergraduates advocating for and transferring advocacy skills to Hmong families to increase their access to resources in their communities. Undergraduate paraprofessionals and Hmong participants worked together for 6–8 hr per week for 6 months. Growth trajectory analysis revealed promising quantitative findings. Participants' quality of life, satisfaction with resources, English proficiency, and knowledge for the U.S. citizenship test increased and their levels of distress decreased over the course of the intervention. Mediating analyses suggested that participants' increased quality of life could be explained by their improved satisfaction with resources. Qualitative data helped to support and explain the quantitative data, as well as providing insight into other outcomes and processes of the intervention. Policy, practice, and research implications are discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abbott, S. P., Reed, E., Abbott, R. D., & Berninger, V. W. (1997). Year-long balanced reading/writing tutorial: A design experiment used for dynamic assessment. Learning Disability Quarterly, 20, 249–263.
Ager, A. (1999). Perspectives on the refugee experience. In A. Ager (Ed.), Refugees: Perspectives on the experience of forced migration (pp. 1–23). London: Pinter.
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182.
Beiser, M., & Hou, F. (2001). Language acquisition, unemployment, and depressive disorder among Southeast Asian refugees: A 10 year study. Social Science and Medicine, 53, 1321–1334.
Benson, J. E. (1990). Good neighbors: Ethnic relations in Garden City trailer courts. Urban Anthropology, 19, 361–386.
Berry, J. W. (1986). The acculturation process and refugee behavior. In C. L. Williams& J. Westermeyer (Eds.), Refugee mental health in resettlement countries (pp. 25–37). New York: Hemisphere.
Berry, J. W. (1998). Acculturation and health: Theory and research. In S. S Kazarian& D. R. Evans (Eds.), Cultural clinical psychology: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 39–57). New York: Oxford University Press.
Bybee, D. I., & Sullivan, C. M. (2002). The process through which an advocacy intervention resulted in positive change for battered women over time. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 103–132.
Byrk, A., & Raudenbush, S. (1992). Hierarchical linear models. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Byrk, A., Raudenbush, S., & Congdon, R. (2001). HLM: Hierarchical linear and non-linear modeling (Student Version 5.04 for Windows) [Computer software]. Lincolnwood, IL: Scientific Software International.
Carlson, E. B., & Rosser-Hogan, R. (1991). Trauma experiences, posttraumatic stress, dissociation, and depression in Cambodian refugees. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 1548–1551.
Cunningham, P. M. (1992). From Freire to feminism: The North American experience with critical pedagogy. Adult Education Quarterly, 42, 180–191.
Cunningham, P. M. (1998). The social dimension of transformative learning. PAACE Journal of Lifelong Learning, 7, 15–28.
Davidson, W. S., Redner, R., Blakely, C. H., Mitchell, C. M., & Emshoff, J. G. (1987). Diversion of juvenile offenders: An experimental comparison. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 68–75.
Diener, E., & Fujita, F. (1995). Resources, personal strivings, and subjective well-being: A nomothetic and idiographic approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 926–935.
Elashoff, J. (1995). NQuery Advisor Version 1.0 [Computer software and manual]. Cork, Ireland: Statistical Solutions.
Freire, P. (1998). The adult literacy process as cultural action for freedom. Harvard Educational Review, 68, 476–521.
Goode, J. (1990). A wary welcome to the neighborhood: Community responses to immigrants. Urban Anthropology, 19, 125–153.
Goodkind, J. (2000). MSU refugee well-being project training manual. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University.
Goodkind, J. (2002). Promoting refugee well-being: A community-based advocacy and learning intervention. Unpublished dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan.
Goodkind, J., & Deacon, Z. (2004). Methodological issues in conducting research with refugee women: Principles for recognizing and re-centering the multiply marginalized. Journal of Community Psychology, 32(6), 721–739.
Gorst-Unsworth, C., & Goldenberg, E. (1998). Psychological sequelae of torture and organized violence suffered by refugees from Iraq: Trauma-related factors compared with social factors in exile. British Journal of Psychiatry, 172, 90–94.
Hein, J. (1995). From Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia: A refugee experience in the United States. New York: Twayne.
Hinton, W. L., Tiet, Q., Tran, C. G., & Chesney, M. (1997). Predictors of depression among refugees from Vietnam: A longitudinal study of new arrivals. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 185, 39–45.
Hirayama, K. K., Hirayama, H., & Cetingok, M. (1993). Mental health promotion for Southeast Asian refugees in the USA. International Social Work, 36, 119–129.
Hmong population in the world—year 2000 (n.d.). Retrieved March 11, 2004, from Lao Human Rights Council Web site: http://home.earthlink.net/~laohumrights/2000data.html
Hobfoll, S. E., & Lilly, R. S. (1993). Resource conservation as a strategy for community psychology. Journal of Community Psychology, 21, 128–148.
Kenyon, D., & Stansfield, C. W. (1989). Basic English skills test manual. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
Kim, U., Triandis, H. C., Kagitcibasi, C., Choi, S., & Yoon, G. (1994). Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and applications. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Kinzie, J. D., & Fleck, J. (1987). Psychotherapy with severely traumatized refugees. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 41, 82–94.
Kivlighan, D. M., Jr., Schuetz, S. A., & Kardash, C. M. (1998). Counselor trainee achievement goal orientation and the acquisition of time-limited dynamic psychotherapy skills. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 45, 189–195.
Kreft, I., & De Leeuw, J. (1998). Introducing multilevel modeling. London: Sage.
Lavik, N. J., Hauff, E., Skrondal, A., & Solberg, O. (1996). Mental disorder among refugees and the impact of persecution and exile: Some findings from an out-patient population. British Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 726–732.
Lee, J. A. (1986). Asian-American elderly: A neglected minority group. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 18, 103–116.
Luke, D. A., Rappaport, J., & Seidman, E. (1991). Setting phenotypes in a mutual help organization: Expanding behavior setting theory. American Journal of Community Psychology, 19, 147–167.
Marin, G. (1993). Defining culturally appropriate community interventions: Hispanics as a case study. Journal of Community Psychology, 21, 149–161.
McLoyd, V. (1990). The impact of economic hardship on Black families and children: Psychological distress, parenting, and socioemotional development. Child Development, 61, 311–346.
Miller, K. (1999). Rethinking a familiar model: Psychotherapy and the mental health of refugees. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 29, 283–306.
Mollica, R., Wyshak, G., & Lavelle, J. (1987). The psychosocial impact of war trauma and torture on Southeast Asian refugees. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 1567–1572.
Ossorio, P. G. (1979). An assessment of mental health-related needs among the Indochinese refugees in the Denver metropolitan area. Longmont, CO: Linguistic Research Institute.
Paltiel, F. (1987). Is being poor a mental health hazard? Women and Health, 12, 189–211.
Parsons, R. J., Gutierrez, L. M., & Cox, E. O. (1998). A model for empowerment practice. In L. M. Gutierrez, R. J. Parsons, & E. O. Cox (Eds.), Empowerment in social work practice: A sourcebook (pp. 3–23). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Pejovic, M., Jovanovic, A., & Djurdic, S. (1997). Psychotherapy experience with patients treated for war psychotraumas. Psychiatriki, 8, 136–141.
Pernice, R., & Brook, J. (1996). Refugees' and immigrants' mental health: Association of demographic and post-migration factors. Journal of Social Psychology, 136, 511–519.
Peterson, N. A., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2004). Beyond the individual: Toward a nomological network of organizational empowerment. American Journal of Community Psychology, 34, 129–145.
Portes, A., & Rumbaut, R. (2001). Legacies. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Rappaport, J. (1977). Community psychology: Values, research, and action. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
Rappaport, J. (1981). In praise of paradox: A social policy of empowerment over prevention. American Journal of Community Psychology, 9, 1–25.
Rumbaut, R. G. (1985). Mental health and the refugee experience: A comparative study of Southeast Asian refugees. In T. C. Owan (Ed.), Southeast Asian mental health: Treatment, preventions, services, training, and research (DHHS Publication No. ADM 85-1399). Rockville, MD: National Institute of Mental Health.
Rumbaut, R. G. (1989a). Portraits, patterns, and predictors of the refugee adaptation process: Results and reflections from the IHARP Panel Study. In D. W. Haines (Ed.), Refugees as immigrants: Cambodians, Laotians, and Vietnamese in America (pp. 138–190). Totowa, NJ: Rowman& Littlefield.
Rumbaut, R. G. (1989b). The structure of refuge: Southeast Asian refugees in the United States 1975–1985 . International Review of Comparative Public Policy, 1, 97–129.
Rumbaut, R. G. (1991a). Migration, adaptation, and mental health: The experience of Southeast Asian refugees in the United States. In H. Adelman (Ed.), Refugee policy: Canada and the United States (pp. 381–424). Toronto: York Lanes Press.
Rumbaut, R. G. (1991b). The agony of exile: A study of the migration and adaptation of Indochinese refugee adults and children. In F. L. Ahearn Jr., & J. L.Athey (Eds.), Refugee children: Theory, research, and services (pp. 53–91). Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.
Ryan, W. (1976). Blaming the victim. New York: Vintage Books.
Saleebey, D. (1997). The strengths perspective in social work practice (2nd ed.). New York: Longman.
Silove, D., Sinnerbrink, I., Field, A., Manicavasagar, V., & Steel, Z. (1997). Anxiety, depression and PTSD in asylum-seekers: Associations with pre-migration trauma and post-migration stressors. British Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 351–357.
Sinnerbrink, I., Dilove, D., Field, A., Steel, Z., & Manicavasagar, V. (1997). Compounding of pre-immigration trauma and post-migration stress in asylum seekers. Journal of Psychology, 131, 463–470.
Springer, A. (2002). 2002: Lowest refugee admissions in two decades? Refugee Reports, 23, 1–2.
Starret, R. H., Mindell, C. H., & Wright, R. (1983). Influence of support systems on the use of social services of the Hispanic elderly. Social Work Research and Abstracts, 19, 35–40.
Strawn, C. (1994). Beyond the buzzword: Empowerment in community outreach and education. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 30, 159–174.
Sue, S., & Morishima, J. K. (1982). The mental health of Asian Americans. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Sullivan, C. M. (1998). Resilient child study advocate training manual. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University.
Sullivan, C. M. (2000). A model for effectively advocating for women with abusive partners. In J. P. Vincent, & E. N. Jouriles (Eds.), Domestic violence: Guidelines for research-informed practice (pp. 126–143). London: Jessica Kingsley.
Sullivan, C. M., & Bybee, D. I. (1999). Reducing violence using community-based advocacy for women with abusive partners. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 43–53.
Sullivan, C. M., Tan, C., Basta, J., Rumptz, M., & Davidson, W. S. (1992). An advocacy intervention program for women with abusive partners: Initial evaluation. American Journal of Community Psychology, 20, 309–322.
Svartberg, M., Seltzer, M. H., Stiles, T. C., & Khoo, S. (1995). Symptom improvement and its temporal course in short-term dynamic psychotherapy. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 183, 242–248.
Trickett, E. J. (1996). A future for community psychology: The contexts of diversity and the diversity of contexts. American Journal of Community Psychology, 24, 209–229.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2002). Refugees and others of concern to UNHCR: 2002 Statistical overview. Geneva: Author.
United States Committee for Refugees (2003). World refugee survey 2003. Washington DC: Immigration and Refugee Services of America.
Vella, J. (1994). Learning to listen, learning to teach: The power of dialogue in educating adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Westermeyer, J., & Her, C. (1996). English fluency and social adjustment among Hmong refugees in Minnesota. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 184, 130–132.
Westermeyer, J., Neider, J., & Callies, A. (1989). Psychosocial adjustment of Hmong refugees during their first decade in the United States. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 177, 132–139.
Williams, C. L., & Westermeyer, J. (1986). Refugee mental health in resettlement countries. The series in clinical and community psychology. Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publishing.
Yang, P., & Murphy, N. (1993). Hmong in the '90s: Stepping towards the future. St. Paul, MN: Hmong American Partnership.
Ying, Y., & Akutsu, P. D. (1997). Psychological adjustment of Southeast Asian refugees: The contribution of sense of coherence. Journal of Community Psychology, 25, 125–139.
Zimmerman, M. A. (1995). Psychological empowerment: Issues and illustrations. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23, 581–599.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Goodkind, J.R. Effectiveness of a Community-Based Advocacy and Learning Program for Hmong Refugees. Am J Community Psychol 36, 387–408 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-005-8633-z
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-005-8633-z