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Loss and gains in ant–plant interactions mediated by extrafloral nectar: fidelity, cheats, and lies

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Abstract

All mutualistic plant–animal interactions are mediated by costs and benefits in relationships where resources (from plants) are exchanged by services (from animals). The most common trading coin that plants offer to pay for animal services is nectar; the main servers are hymenopterans. Extrafloral nectar (EFN) is produced in almost all aboveground plant parts not directly related with pollination, and their true function has long been an issue of discussion among naturalists and will be our main subject. The protective function of extrafloral nectaries (EFNs) is reviewed and considered with an alternative hypothesis, presenting not only ants, but also spiders and wasps as potential and effective agents in these protective interactions. Despite their likely relevance, the phenological variation (mainly sequential flowering and resprouting) of host plants mediating these interactions have been generally ignored. We discuss how the outcomes of each ant–EFN bearing plant interaction vary depending on physical and biotic changes in interacting organisms (internal factors such as phenology and species identity) as well as in their environments (external factors such as climatic variation), all of which may modify the character of each interaction. We propose that ant–EFN bearing plant interactions serve an excellent and unique model to test the “Geographic Mosaic Theory” of coevolution providing us a more clear view of how evolution has structured these plant–animal ecological networks.

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Acknowledgments

We are thankful to Dr. Margaret J. Couvillon and Dr. Michael Breed who invited us to produce this review. KDC thanks to CNPq (PQ 301605/2013-0); HMTS and KDC thanks to CNPq (473055/2012-0). We also thank the ants, plants, and other arthropods who have made this review possible; beyond an excellent reviewer whose criticism and suggestions significantly improved the quality of our text.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Instituto de Biologia, LECI (Laboratório de Ecologia Comportamental e de Interações), Pós-graduação em Ecologia e Conservação de Recursos Naturais, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, CP 38400-902, Uberlandia, MG, Brazil

    K. Del-Claro, H. M. Torezan-Silingardi, E. Alves-Silva, R. Fagundes & A. A. Vilela

  2. Instituto de Neuroetología-Universidad Veracruzana, 91190, Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico

    V. Rico-Gray

  3. Instituto de Ecología A.C., Red de Interacciones Multitróficas, Carretera antigua a Coatepec 351, El Haya, CP 91070, Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico

    A. Aguirre & D. Rodriguez-Morales

  4. Red de Ecoetología, Instituto de Ecología A.C., Carretera antigua a Coatepec 351, El Haya, CP 91070, Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico

    W. Dáttilo

  5. Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná, Campus Santa Helena, Santa Helena, PR, Brazil

    D. Lange

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  1. K. Del-Claro
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Del-Claro, K., Rico-Gray, V., Torezan-Silingardi, H.M. et al. Loss and gains in ant–plant interactions mediated by extrafloral nectar: fidelity, cheats, and lies. Insect. Soc. 63, 207–221 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00040-016-0466-2

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