Abstract
Developed the concept of psychological wellness and made the case that proportionally more resources should be directed to the pursuit of this goal. Five pathways to wellness are considered, implicating aspects of individual development and the impact of contexts, settings, and policies. The five pathways are: forming wholesome early attachments; acquiring age- and ability-appropriate competencies; engineering settings that promote adaptive outcomes; fostering empowerment; and acquiring skills needed to cope effectively with life stressors. Although these noncompeting pathways have differential salience at different ages and for different groups and life conditions, each is an essential element in any comprehensive social plan to advance wellness. Examples of effective programs are cited in all five areas, including recent comprehensive, long-term programs embodying multiple pathways to wellness.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1989). Attachments beyond infancy.American Psychologist, 44, 709–716.
Albee, G. W. (1982). Preventing psychopathology and promoting human potential.American Psychologist, 37, 1043–1050.
Anderson, S., & Messick, S. (1974). Social competence in young children.Developmental Psychology, 10, 282–293.
Antonovsky, A. (1979),Health, stress and coping. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
Aronson, E., Blaney, N., Stephan, C., Sikes, J., & Snapp, M. (1978).The jigsaw classroom. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Auerbach, S. M., & Stolberg, A. L. (Eds.) (1986).Crisis intervention with children. Washington, DC: Hemisphere.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavior change.Psychological Review, 84, 191–215.
Battistich, V., Solomon, D. S., Watson, M., Solomon, J., & Schaps, E. (1989). Effects of an elementary school program to enhance prosocial behavior and children's cognitive social problem solving skills and strategies.Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 10, 147–169.
Berrueta-Clement, J. R., Schweinhart, L. J., Barnett, M. W., Epstein, A. S., & Weikart, D. P. (1984).Changed lives: The effects of the Perry Preschool Program on youths through age 19. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Educational Research Foundation.
Bloom, B. L. (1979). Prevention of mental disorders: Recent advances in theory and practice.Community Mental Health Journal, 15, 179–191.
Botvin, G. J., & Eng, A. (1982). The efficacy of a multicomponent approach to the prevention of cigarette smoking.Preventive Medicine, 11, 199–211.
Botvin, G. J., & Renick, N., & Baker, E. (1983). The effects of scheduling format and booster sessions on a broad spectrum psychosocial approach to smoking prevention.Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 6, 359–379.
Botvin, G. J., & Tortu, S. (1988). Preventing substance abuse through life skills training. In R. H. Price, E. L. Cowen, R. P. Lorion, & J. Ramos-McKay (Eds.),14 ounces of prevention: A casebook for practitioners (pp. 98–110). Washington, DC, American Psychological Association.
Bowlby, J. (1982).Attachment and loss (Vol. 1). New York: Basic Books.
Broussard, E. R. (1977). Primary prevention program for newborn infants at high risk for emotional disorder. In D. C. Klein & S. E. Goldston (Eds.),Primary prevention: An idea whose time has come (pp. 63–68). Rockville, MD: U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Broussard, E. B. (1989). The Infant-Family Resource Program: Facilitating optimal development. In R. E. Hess & J. DeLeon (Eds.),The National Mental Health Association: 80 Years of involvement in the field of prevention (pp. 179–224). New York: Haworth.
Caplan, M. Z., Weissberg, R. P., Grober, J. S., Sivo, P. J., Grady, K., & Jacoby, C. (1992). Social competence promotion with inner-city and suburban young adolescents: Effects on social adjustment and alcohol use.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 56–63.
Cicchetti, D., & Garmezy, N. (Eds.) (1993). Milestones in the development of resilience.Development and Psychopathology, 4, 497–783.
Coie, J. D., Watt, N. F., West, S. G., Hawkins, J. D., Asarnow, J. R., Markman, H. J., Ramey, S. L., Shure, M. B., & Long, B. (1993). The science of prevention: A conceptual framework and some directions for a national research program.American Psychologist, 48, 1013–1022.
Comer, J. P. (1980).School power. New York: Free Press.
Comer, J. P. (1987). New Haven's school-community connection.Educational Leadership, 44, 13–16.
Comer, J. P. (1988). Educating poor minority children.Scientific American, 259, 42–48.
Cowen, E. L. (1973). Social and community interventions. In P. Mussen & M. Rosenzweig (Eds.),Annual Review of Psychology, 24, 423–472.
Cowen, E. L. (1977). Baby-steps toward primary prevention.American Journal of Community Psychology, 5, 1–22.
Cowen, E. L. (1980). The wooing of primary prevention.American Journal of Community Psychology, 8, 258–284.
Cowen, E. L. (Ed.) (1982). Research in primary prevention in mental health.American Journal of Community Psychology, 10, 239–367.
Cowen, E. L. (1983). Primary prevention in mental health: Past, present and future. In R. D. Felner, L. Jason, J. Moritsugu, & S. S. Farber (Eds.)Preventive psychology: Theory, research and practice in community interventions (pp. 11–25). New York: Pergamon.
Cowen, E. L. (1985). Person centered approaches to primary prevention in mental health: Situation-focused and competence enhancement.American Journal of Community Psychology, 13, 31–48.
Cowen, E. L. (1986). Primary prevention in mental health: Ten years of retrospect and ten years of prospect. In M. Kessler & S. E. Goldston (Eds.),A decade of progress in primary prevention (pp. 3–45). Hanover, NH: University Press of New England.
Cowen, E. L. (1991). In pursuit of wellness.American Psychologist, 46, 404–408.
Cowen, E. L. (1994). Community psychology and routes to psychological wellness. In: J. R. Rappaport & E. Seidman (Eds.),Handbook of community psychology (2nd ed.) New York: Wiley.
Cowen, E. L., Wyman, P. A., Work, W. C., & Parker, G. R. (1990). The Rochester Child Resilience Project (RCRP): Overview and summary of first year findings.Development and Psychopathology, 2, 193–212.
Crick, N. R., & Dodge, K. A. (1994). A review and reformulation of social information processing mechanisms in children's social adjustment.Psychological Bulletin, 115, 74–101.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. (1985).Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press.
Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective,Educational Psychologist, 26, 325–346.
Dinges, N. (1994). Mental health promotion. In P. J. Mrazek & R. J. Haggerty (Eds.)Reducing risks for mental disorders: Frontiers for preventive intervention (pp. 333–355). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Durlak, J. (1983). Social problem-solving as a primary prevention strategy. In R. D. Felner, L. A. Jason, J. N. Moritsugu, & S. S. Farber (Eds.),Preventive psychology: Theory, research and practice (pp. 31–48). New York: Pergamon.
Eccles, J. S., Midgley, C., Wigfield, A., Buchaman, C. M., Reuman, D., Flanagan, C., & McIvers, D. (1993). The impact of stage-environment fit on young adolescents' experiences in schools and families.American Psychologist, 48, 90–101.
Elias, M. J., & Clabby, J. F. (1992).Building social problem-solving skills: Guidelines from a school-based program. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Elias, M. J., Gara, M. A., Schuyler, T. F., Branden-Muller, L. R., & Sayette, M. A. (1991). The promotion of social competence: Longitudinal study of a school-based program.American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 61, 409–417.
Elias, M. J., Gara, M., Ubriaco, M., Rothbaum, P. A., Clabby, J. F., & Schuyler, T. (1986). Impact of a preventive social problem solving program on children's coping with middle school stressors.American Journal of Community Psychology, 14, 259–275.
Felner, R. D., & Adan, A. M. (1988). The School Transitional Environmental Project: An ecological intervention and evaluation. In R. H. Price, E. L. Cowen, R. P. Lorion, & J. Ramos-McKay (Eds.),14 ounces of prevention: A casebook for practitioners (pp. 111–122). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
Felner, R. A., Brand, S., Adam, A. A., Mulhall, P. F., Flowers, N., Sartain, B., & DuBois, B. L. (1993). Restructuring the ecology of the school as an approach to prevention during school transitions: Longitudinal follow-up and extensions of the School Transition Environmental Project (STEP).Prevention and Human Services, 10, 103–136.
Felner, R. P., Ginter, M. A., & Primavera, J. (1982). Primary prevention during school transitions: Social support and environment structure.American Journal of Community Psychology, 10, 227–240.
Finkel, N. J. (1974). Strens and traumas: An attempt at categorization.American Journal of Community Psychology, 2, 265–275.
Finkel, N. J. (1975). Strens trauma and trauma resolution.American Journal of Community Psychology, 3, 173–178.
Fonagy, P., Steele, M., Steele, H., Higgit, A., & Target, M. (1994). The theory and practice of resilience.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 231–257.
Garmezy, N. (1982). Foreword. In E. E. Werner & R. S. Smith (Eds.),Vulnerable but invincible: A study of resilient children (pp. xii-xix). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Garmezy, N., Masten, A. S., & Tellegen, A. (1984). Studies of stress-resistant children: A building block for developmental psychopathology.Child Development, 55, 97–111.
Gartner, A., & Riessman, F. (1993). Peer tutoring: Toward a new model. ERIC Digest. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teaching and Teacher Education.
Gottfredson, D. C. (1986). An empirical test of school-based environmental and individual interventions to reduce the risk of delinquent behavior.Criminology, 24, 705–731.
Greenspan, S. I. (1981).Psychopathology and adaptation in infancy and early childhood: Principles of clinical diagnosis and preventive intervention (Clinical Infant Reports No. 1). New York: International Universities Press.
Greenspan, S. I. (1982). Developmental morbidity in infants in multi-risk-factor families.Public Health Reports, 97, 16–23.
Gruber, J. & Trickett, E. J. (1987). Can we empower others? The paradox of empowerment in the governing of an alternative public school.American Journal of Community Psychology, 15, 353–371.
Gump, P. V. (1980). The school as a social situation. In M. R. Rosenzweig & L. W. Porter (Eds.)Annual Review of Psychology, 31, 553–582.
Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., & Miller, J. Y. (1992a). Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems: Implications for substance abuse prevention.Psychological Bulletin, 112, 64–105.
Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., Morrison, D. M., O'Donnell, J., Abbott, R. D., & Day, L. E. (1992b). The Seattle Social Development Project: Effects of the first four years on protective factors and problem behaviors. In J. McCord & R. E. Tremblay (Eds.),The prevention of anti-social behavior in children (pp. 139–161). New York: Guilford.
Hawkins, J. D., & Lam, T. (1987). Teacher practices, social development, and delinquency. In J. D. Burchard & S. N. Burchard (Eds.),The prevention of delinquent behavior (pp. 241–274). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Hawkins, J. D., Von Cleve, E., & Catalano, R. F. (1991). Reducing early childhood aggression: Results of a primary prevention program.Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 208–217.
Hollister, W. G. (1967). Concept of strens in education: A challenge to curriculum development. In E. M. Bower & W. G. Hollister (Eds.),Behavioral science frontiers in education (pp. 193–206). New York: Wiley.
Honig, A. S. (1986a, May). Stress and coping in children (Part 1).Young Children, pp. 50–63.
Honig, A. S. (1986b, July). Stress and coping in children (Part 2): Interpersonal family relationships.Young Children, pp. 47–50.
Jahoda, M. (1958).Current concepts of positive mental health. New York: Basic Books.
Jessor, R. (1993). Successful adolescent development among youth in high-risk settings.American Psychologist, 48, 117–126.
Johnson, D. L. (1988). Primary prevention of behavior problems in young children: The Houston Parent Child Development Center. In R. H. Price, E. L. Cowen, R. P. Lorion, & J. Ramos-McKay (Eds.),14 ounces of prevention: A casebook for practitioners (pp. 44–52). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Johnson, J. H. (1986).Life events as stressors in childhood and adolescence. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Kasprow, W. J., Weissberg, R. P., et al. (1992).New Haven Public Schools Social Development Project. New Haven, CT: New Haven School District.
Kiesler, C. A. (1992). Some observations about the concept of the chronically mental ill. In M. Kessler, S. E. Goldston, & J. M. Joffe (Eds.).The present and future of prevention: In honor of George W. Albee (pp. 55–68). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Kiesler, C. A., Simpkins, C., & Morton, T. (1989). The psychiatric in-patient treatment of children and youth in general hospitals.American Journal of Community Psychology, 17, 821–830.
Koretz, D. S. (1991). Prevention-centered science in mental health.American Journal of Community Psychology, 19, 453–458.
Kornberg, M. S., & Caplan, G. (1980). Risk factors and preventive intervention in child psychotherapy: A review.Journal of Prevention, 1, 71–133.
Kuhn, T. S. (1970).The structure of scientific revolutions, (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Levine, M., & Perkins, D. V. (1987).Principles of community psychology: Perspectives and applications. New York: Oxford University Press.
Lombard, A. D. (1991).Success begins at home. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
Lorion, R. P. (Ed.). (1990).Protecting the children: Strategies for optimizing emotional and behavioral development. New York: Haworth.
Masten, A. S., Best, K. M., & Garmezy, N. (1991). Resilience and development: Contributions from the study of children who overcame adversity.Development and Psychopathology, 2, 425–444.
McLoyd, V. C. (1990). The impact of economic hardship on Black families and children: Psychological stress, parenting and socioemotional development.Child Development, 61, 311–346.
Moos, R. H. (1974).Evaluating treatment environments: A social ecological approach. New York: Wiley.
Moos, R. H. (1975).Evaluating correctional and community settings. New York: Wiley.
Moos, R. H. (1979).Evaluating educational environments San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Mrazek, P. J., & Haggerty, R. J. (Eds.). (1994).Reducing risks for mental disorders: Frontiers for preventive intervention. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Olds, D. L. (1988). The prenatal/early infancy project. In R. H. Price, E. L. Cowen, R. P. Lorion & J. Ramos-McKay (Eds.),14 ounces of prevention: A casebook for practitioners (pp. 9–23). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Olweus, D. (1978).Aggression in the schools: Bullies and whipping boys. Washington, DC: Hemisphere.
Olweus, D. (1979). Stability of aggressive reaction patterns in males: A review.Psychological Bulletin, 86, 852–875.
Olweus, D. (1993).Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do about it. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Pedro-Carroll, J. L., & Cowen, E. L. (1987). Preventive interventions for children of divorce. In J. P. Vincent (Ed.),Advances in family intervention, assessment and theory (Vol. 4, pp. 281–307). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Pentz, M. A., Dwyer, J. H., MacKinnon, D. P., Flay, B. R., Hansen, W. B., Wang, E. Y. I., & Johnson, C. A. (1989). A multi-community trial for primary prevention of adolescent drug abuse: Effects on drug use prevalence.Journal of the American Medical Association, 261, 3259–3266.
Perry, C. L., Klepp, K. I., & Shultz, J. M. (1988). Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease: Community wide strategies for youth.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 358–364.
Perry, C. L., Klepp, K. I., & Sillers, C. (1989). Community wide strategies for cardiovascular health. The Minnesota Heart Health Youth Program.Health Education Research, 4, 87–101.
Price, R. H., Cowen, E. L., Lorion, R. P., & Ramos-McKay, J. (Eds.). (1988).14 ounces of prevention: A casebook for practitioners. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Provence, S., & Naylor, A. (1983).Working with disadvantaged parents and children: Scientific issues and practice. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Ramey, C. T., Bryant, D. M., Campbell, F. A., Sparling, J. J., & Wasik, B. H. (1988) In R. H. Price, E. L. Cowen, R. P. Lorion & J. Ramos-McKay (Eds.),14 ounces of prevention: A casebook for practitioners, (pp. 32–43). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Rappaport, J. (1981). In praise of paradox: A social policy of empowerment over prevention.American Journal of Community Psychology, 9, 1–25.
Rappaport, J. (1984). Studies in empowerment: Introduction to the issue.Prevention in Human Services, 3, 1–7.
Rappaport, J. (1987). Terms of empowerment/exemplars of prevention: Toward a theory of community psychology.American Journal of Community Psychology, 15, 121–148.
Rappaport, J., Davidson, W. S., Wilson, M. N., & Mitchell, A. (1975). Alternatives to blaming the victim or the environment: Our places to stand have not moved the earth.American Psychologist, 30, 525–528.
Rappaport, J., Swift, C., & Hess, R. (Eds.). (1984). Studies in empowerment: Steps toward understanding and action.Prevention and Human Services, 3, 1–230.
Roberts, M. C., & Peterson, L. (1984).Prevention of problems in childhood: Psychological research and applications. New York: Wiley.
Rotheram, M. J., Armstrong, M., & Booraem (1992). Assertiveness training in fourth- and fifth-grade children.American Journal of Community Psychology, 10, 567–582.
Rotheram-Borus, M. J. (1988). Assertiveness training with children. In R. H. Price, E. L. Cowen, R. P. Lorion, & J. Ramos-McKay (Eds.),14 ounces of prevention: A casebook for practitioners (pp. 83–97). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Rutter, M. (1990). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. In J. Rolf, A. Masten, D. Cicchetti, K. H. Nuechterlein, & S. Weintraub (Eds.),Risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology (pp. 181–214). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Ryan, R. M., & Stiller, J. (1991). The social contexts of internalization: Parent and teacher influences on autonomy, motivation, and learning. In R. P. Pintrich & M. L. Maehr (Eds.),Advances in motivation and achievement, Vol. 7: Goals and self-regulatory processes (pp. 115–149). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
Sarason, S. B. (1993a).Letters to a SERIOUS education president. Newbury Park, CA: Corwin.
Sarason, S. B. (1993b).The case for change: Rethinking the preparation of educators, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
Sarason, S. B., Levine, M., Goldenberg, I. I., Cherlin, D. L., & Bennett, E. M. (1966).Psychology in community settings: Clinical, educational, vocational and social aspects. New York: Wiley.
Schweinhart, L. J., Barnes, H. V., & Weikart, D. P. (1993).Significant benefits: The High/Scope Perry Preschool study through age 27. Ypsilanti, MI: High Scope Press.
Schweinhart, L. J., & Weikart, D. P. (1988). The High Scope/Perry Preschool Program. In R. H. Price, E. L. Cowen, R. P. Lorion & J. Ramos-McKay (Eds.),14 ounces of prevention: A casebook for practitioners (pp. 53–65). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Seitz, V., & Apfel, N. H. (1994). Parent focused intervention: Diffusion effects on siblings.Child Development, 65, 677–683.
Seitz, V., Rosenbaum, N. K., & Apfel, N. H. (1985). Effects of family support intervention: A ten-year follow-up.Child Development, 56, 376–391.
Sharon, S. (1990).Cooperative learning: Theory and research. New York: Praeger.
Shedler, J., Mayman, M., & Manis, M. (1993). The illusion of mental health.American Psychologist, 48, 1117–1131.
Shoben, E. J. (1957). Toward a concept of normal personality.American Psychologist, 12, 183–189.
Shure, M. B., & Spivack, G. (1982). Interpersonal problem-solving in young children: A cognitive approach to prevention.American Journal of Community Psychology, 10, 341–356.
Shure, M. B., & Spivack, G. (1988). Interpersonal cognitive problem solving (ICPS). In R. H. Price, E. L. Cowen, R. P. Lorion, & J. Ramos-McKay (Eds.).14 ounces of prevention: A casebook for practitioners (pp. 69–82). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Silverman, P. R. (1988). Widow-to-widow: A mutual help program for the widowed. In R. H. Price, E. L. Cowen, R. P. Lorion, & J. Ramos-McKay (Eds.),14 ounces of prevention: A casebook for practitioners (pp. 175–186). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Slavin, R. L. (1977). Classroom reward structure: An analytical and practical review.Journal of Educational Research, 44, 633–650.
Solomon, D., Watson, M. S., Delucchi, K. L., Schaps, E., & Battistich, V. (1988). Enhancing children's prosocial behavior in the classroom.American Educational Research Journal, 25, 527–554.
Spivack, G., & Shure, M. B. (1974).Social adjustment of young children: A cognitive approach to solving real-life problems. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Sprinthall, N. A. (1984). Primary prevention: A road paved with a plethora of promises and procrastinations.Personnel and Guidance Journal, 62, 491–495.
St. Pierre, T. L., Kaltreider, D. L., Mark, N. M., & Aikin, K. J. (1992). Drug prevention in a community setting: A longitudinal study of the relative effectiveness of a three-year primary prevention program in Boys and Girls Clubs across the nation.American Journal of Community Psychology, 20, 673–706.
Strayhorn, J. M. (1988).The competent child: An approach to psychotherapy and preventive mental health. New York: Guilford.
Swift, C. F., & Levin, G. (1987). Empowerment: The greening of prevention. In M. Kessler, S. E., Goldston, & J. M. Joffe (Eds.),The present and future of prevention: In honor of George W. Albee (pp. 99–111). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Swift, C. F. (1992). Empowerment: An emerging mental health technology.Journal of Primary Prevention, 8, 71–94.
Trickett, E. J., Dahiyat, C. & Selby, P. (in press).Primary prevention in mental health: An annotated bibliography. Rockville, MD: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Vachon, J. L., Lyall, M. A., Rogers, J., Freedman-Letofsky, K., & Freeman, S. (1980). A controlled study of self-help intervention for widows.American Journal of Psyciatry, 137, 1380–1384.
Wandersman, A., & Florin, P. (1990). Citizen participation, voluntary organizations and community development: Insights for empowerment through research.American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 41–177.
Weinstein, C. S. (1991). The classroom as a social context for learning. In M. R. Rosenzweig & L. W. Porter (Eds.)Annual Review of Psychology, 42, 493–525.
Weissberg, R. P. & Caplan, M. Z. (in press).Promoting social competence and preventing antisocial behavior in young urban adolescents.
Weissberg, R. P., Caplan, M. Z., & Harwood, R. L. (1991). Promoting competence enhancing environments: A systems-based perspective on primary prevention.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 830–841.
Weissberg, R. P., & Elias, M. J. (1993). Enhancing young children's social competence and health behavior: An important challenge for educators, scientists, policy makers and funders.Applied and Preventive Psychology, 2, 179–190.
Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1982).Vulnerable but invincible: A study of resilient children. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1992).Overcoming the odds: High risk children from birth to adulthood. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Wright, S., & Cowen, E. L. (1985). The effects of peer teaching on student perceptions of class environment, adjustment and academic performance.American Journal of Community Psychology, 13, 413–427.
Yoshikawa, H. (1994). Prevention as cumulative protection: Effects of early family support and education on chronic delinquency and its risks.Psychological Bulletin, 115, 28–54.
Zax, M., & Cowen, E. L. (1976).Abnormal psychology: Changing conceptions (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
Zigler, E., Taussig, C., & Black, K. (1992). A promising preventative for juvenile deliquency.American Psychologist, 47, 997–1006.
Zimmerman, M. A. (1990). Taking aim on empowerment research: On the distinction between individual and psychological conceptions.American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 169–177.
Zimmerman, M. A., Israel, B. A., Schulz, A., & Checkoway, B. (1992). Further explorations in empowerment theory: An empirical analysis of psychological empowerment.American Journal of Community Psychology, 20, 707–728.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
Some ideas in this paper were first presented in a talk at the W. T. Grant Foundation-sponsored conference on “Risk, Resiliency and Development,” Kiawah Island, S. Carolina, May 30, 1992. The author gratefully acknowledges support from the Grant Foundation in writing this article.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Cowen, E.L. The enhancement of psychological wellness: Challenges and opportunities. Am J Commun Psychol 22, 149–179 (1994). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02506861
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02506861