Abstract
On the basis of the reformulated model of learned helplessness, we tested relationships among level of depression, negative self-statements, causal attributions for success and failure, and mood states among schoolchildren. The experimental manipulation of success and failure on an anagram task was an extension of previous work with depressed and nondepressed college students. Results showed, first, that depressive symptoms were related to impaired performance. Second, there were no significantly different responses to success and failure by children with depressive symptoms versus those without such symptoms. Neither causal attributions, self-statements, nor postanagram mood was affected by the presence of depressive symptoms, regardless of whether the child succeeded or failed. On the other hand, across conditions, subjects responded differentially to success and failure. Those in the success condition attributed their performance more to ability and luck and less to task difficulty than did those in the failure condition. Additionally, successful subjects reported a more elevated mood than did unsuccessful subjects. Future research is suggested, based on these results and the different patterns of correlations that emerged among negative self-statements, causal attributions, and mood for successful and unsuccessful subjects.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E. P., & Teasdale, J. D. (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation.Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87 49–74.
Beck, A. T. (1972).Depression: Causes and treatment. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Brock, T. C. (1967). Communication discrepancy and intent to persuade as determinants of counterargument production.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 3 269–309.
Bruch, M. A. (1978). Type of cognitive modeling, imitation of modeled tactics, and modification of test anxiety.Cognitive Therapy and Research, 2 147–164.
Cacippo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1981). Social psychological procedures for cognitive response assessment: The thought-listing technique. In T. V. Merluzzi, C. R. Glass, & M. Genest (Eds.),Cognitive assessment (pp. 309–342). New York: Guilford.
Cantwell, D. P., & Carlson, G. (1979). Problems and prospects in the study of childhood depression.Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 167 522–529.
Cytryn, L., McKnew, D. H., & Bunney, W. E. (1980). Diagnosis of depression in children: A reassessment.American Journal of Psychiatry, 137 22–25.
Greenwald, A. G. (1968). Cognitive learning, cognitive response to persuasion, and attitude change. In A. G. Greenwald, T. C. Brock, & T. M. Ostrom (Eds.),Psychological foundations of attitudes. New York: Academic Press.
Jacobsen, R. H., Lahey, B. B., & Strauss, C. C. (1983). Correlates of depressed mood in normal children.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 11 29–40.
Kashani, J. H., Barbero, G. J., & Bolander, F. D. (1981). Depression in hospitalized pediatric patients.Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 20 123–134.
Kaslow, N. J., Rehm, L. P., & Siegel, A. W. (1984). Social-cognitive correlates of depression in children.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 12 605–620.
Kaslow, N. J., Tanenbaum, R. L., Abramson, L. Y., Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1983). Problem-solving deficits and depression symptoms among children.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 11 497–502.
Kazdin, A. E., French, N. H., Unis, A. S., Esveldt-Dawson, K., & Sherick, R. B. (1983). Hopelessness, depression, and suicidal intent among psychiatrically disturbed inpatient children.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51 504–510.
Kendall, P. C., & Hollon, S. D. (1981). Assessing self-referent speech: Methods in the measurement of self-statements. In P. C. Kendall & S. D. Hollon (Eds.),Assessment strategies for cognitive-behavioral interventions (pp. 85–118). New York: Academic Press.
Klein, D. C., Fencil-Morse, E., & Seligman, M. E. D. (1976). Learned helplessness, depression, and the attribution of failure.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33 508–516.
Klein, D. C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1976). Reversal of performance deficits in learned helplessness and depression.Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85 11–26.
Kovacs, M., & Beck, A. T. (1977). An empirical clinical approach towards a definition of childhood depression. In J. G. Schulterbrandt & A. Raskin (Eds.),Depression in children: Diagnosis, treatment, and conceptual models. New York: Raven Press.
Kuiper, N. A. (1978). Depression and causal attributions for success and failure.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36 236–246.
Layne, C., & Berry, E. (1983). Motivational deficit in childhood depression and hyperactivity.Journal of Clinical Psychology, 39 523–31.
Lefkowitz, M. M., & Burton, N. (1978). Childhood depression: A critique of the concept.Psychological Bulletin, 85 716–726.
Lefkowitz, M. M., & Tesiny, E. P. (1980). Assessment of childhood depression.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 48 43–50.
Lefkowitz, M. M., & Tesiny, E. P. (1984). Rejection and depression: Prospective and contemporaneous analyses.Developmental Psychology, 20 776–785.
Miller, W. R., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Depression and learned helplessness in man.Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 84 228–238.
Orvaschel, H., Weissman, M. M., & Kidd, K. K. (1980). Children and depression.Journal of Affective Disorders, 2 1–16.
Piers, E. V., & Harris, D. B. (1964). Age and other correlates of self-concept in children.Journal of Educational Psychology, 55 91–95.
Price, K. D., Tryon, W. W., & Raps, C. S. (1978). Learned helplessness and depression in a clinical population: A test of two behavioral hypotheses.Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87 113–121.
Rizley, R. (1978). Depression and distortion in the attribution of causality.Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87 32–48.
Sacco, W. P., & Graves, D. J. (1984). Childhood depression, interpersonal problem-solving, and self-ratings of performance.Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 13 10–15.
Seligman, M. E. P., Abramson, L. Y., Semmel, A., & von Baeyer, C. (1979). Depressive attributional style.Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 88 242–247.
Seligman, M. E., P., Peterson, C., Alloy, L. B., Abramson, L. Y., Kaslow, N. J., Tanenbaum, R. L., Karpf, S., Semmel, A., Talmon, M., & von Baeyer, C. (1984). Depressive symptoms, attributional style, and helplessness deficits in children.Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93 235–238.
Tesiny, E. P., & Lefkowitz, M. M. (1982). Childhood depression: A 6-month follow-up study.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50 778–780.
Weiner, B., & Kukla, A. (1970). An attributional analysis of achievement motivation.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 15 1–20.
Zung, W. W. (1965). A self-rating depression scale.Archives of General Psychiatry, 12 63–70.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
Special thanks are due to Kenneth Kimball for his help in organizing the data collection and to Annetta Burke for her help in collecting and scoring the data. The suggestions made by two anonymous reviewers are gratefully acknowledged.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ward, L.G., Friedlander, M.L. & Silverman, W.K. Children's depressive symptoms, negative self-statements, and causal attributions for success and failure. Cogn Ther Res 11, 215–227 (1987). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01183266
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01183266