Abstract
Based on self-determination theory (SDT), we examined mediational models connecting autonomy support and self-criticism to negative affect (NA), positive affect (PA), and goal progress (GP) via autonomous and controlled motivation. Separate measures were obtained within eight domains (e.g., academic performance and intimate relationships) for 346 university students. Multilevel structural equation modeling was used to test whether, both between-persons and within-person, autonomy support and self-criticism predicted autonomous and controlled motivation, which in turn predicted NA, PA, and GP. In addition to several between-persons indirect effects, we found numerous significant within-person indirect effects, including: (1) in domains where they experienced greater autonomy support, people experienced greater PA and greater GP, mediated by greater autonomous motivation and (2) in domains where they experienced greater self-criticism, people experienced more NA mediated by greater controlled motivation, and less PA mediated by greater controlled motivation and lesser autonomous motivation. These results support systematically adopting a multilevel perspective in SDT research.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alwin, D. F., & Hauser, R. M. (1975). The decomposition of effects in path analysis. American Sociological Review. https://doi.org/10.2307/2094445
Benjamini, Y., & Hochberg, Y. (1995). Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society B, 57, 289–300.
Blatt, S. J. (2004). Experiences of depression: Theoretical, research and clinical perspectives. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10749-000
Blatt, S. J. (2008). Polarities of experience: Relatedness and self-definition in personality development, psychopathology, and the therapeutic process. American Psychological Association.
Blatt, S. J., Auerbach, J. S., & Levy, K. N. (1997). Mental representations in personality development, psychopathology, and the therapeutic process. Review of General Psychology, 1(4), 351–374.
Blatt, S. J., & Zuroff, D. C. (1992). Interpersonal relatedness and self-definition: Two prototypes for depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 12(5), 527–562. https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-7358(92)90070-O
Cribbie, R. A. (2007). Multiplicity control in structural equation modeling. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 14(1), 98–112.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1987). The support of autonomy and the control of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(6), 1024. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.6.1024
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. Canadian Psychology/psychologie Canadienne, 49(3), 182–185. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012801
Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95(3), 542–575.
Diener, E., & Emmons, R. A. (1985). The independence of positive and negative affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47(5), 1105–1117. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.47.5.1105
Gilbert, P., Clarke, M., Hempel, S., Miles, J. N., & Irons, C. (2004). Criticizing and reassuring oneself: An exploration of forms, styles and reasons in female students. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43(1), 31–50. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466504772812959
Harvey, B., Milyavskaya, M., Hope, N., Powers, T. A., Saffran, M., & Koestner, R. (2015). Affect variation across days of the week: Influences of perfectionism and academic motivation. Motivation and Emotion, 39(4), 521–530. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-015-9480-3
Hayes, A. F., & Coutts, J. J. (2020). Use omega rather than Cronbach’s alpha for estimating reliability. But…. Communication Methods and Measures, 14(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2020.1718629
Holding, A. C., Hope, N. H., Harvey, B., Marion Jetten, A. S., & Koestner, R. (2017). Stuck in limbo: Motivational antecedents and consequences of experiencing action crises in personal goal pursuit. Journal of Personality, 85(6), 893–905. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12296
Holding, A. C., & Koestner, R. (in press). The role of motivation in the lifecycle of personal goals. In R. Ryan (Ed.) Oxford handbook of self-determination theory.
Hope, N. H., Holding, A. C., Verner-Filion, J., Sheldon, K. M., & Koestner, R. (2019). The path from intrinsic aspirations to subjective well-being is mediated by changes in basic psychological need satisfaction and autonomous motivation: A large prospective test. Motivation and Emotion, 43(2), 232–241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-018-9733-z
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
Jowett, G. E., Hill, A. P., Hall, H. K., & Curran, T. (2013). Perfectionism and junior athlete burnout: The mediating role of autonomous and controlled motivation. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 2(1), 48–61. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029770
Koestner, R., Lekes, N., Powers, T. A., & Chicoine, E. (2002). Attaining personal goals: Self-concordance plus implementation intentions equals success. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 231–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.1.231
Koestner, R., Otis, N., Powers, T. A., Pelletier, L., & Gagnon, H. (2008). Autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and goal progress. Journal of Personality, 76(5), 1201–1230. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00519.x
Koestner, R., Powers, T. A., Carbonneau, N., Milyavskaya, M., & Chua, S. N. (2012). Distinguishing autonomous and directive forms of goal support: Their effects on goal progress, relationship quality, and subjective well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(12), 1609–1620. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167212457075
Koestner, R., Powers, T. A., Milyavskaya, M., Carbonneau, N., & Hope, N. (2015). Goal internalization and persistence as a function of autonomous and directive forms of goal support. Journal of Personality, 83(2), 179–190. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12093
LaGuardia, J. G., Ryan, R. M., Couchman, C. E., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Within-person variation in security of attachment: A self-determination theory perspective on attachment, need fulfillment, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 367–384. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.3.367
Levine, S. L., Brabander, C. J., Moore, A. M., Holding, A. C., & Koestner, R. (2021a). Unhappy or unsatisfied: Distinguishing the role of negative affect and need frustration in depressive symptoms over the academic year and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Motivation and Emotion. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-021-09920-3
Levine, S. L., Holding, A. C., Milyavskaya, M., Powers, T. A., & Koestner, R. (2020). Collaborative autonomy: The dynamic relations between personal goal autonomy and perceived autonomy support in emerging adulthood results in positive affect and goal progress. Motivation Science, 7(2), 45–152. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000209
Levine, S. L., & Milyavskaya, M. (2018). Domain-specific perfectionism: An examination of perfectionism beyond the trait-level and its link to well-being. Journal of Research in Personality, 74, 56–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2018.02.002
Levine, S. L., Milyavskaya, M., Powers, T. A., Holding, A. C., & Koestner, R. (2021b). Autonomous motivation and support flourishes for individuals higher in collaborative personality factors: Agreeableness, assisted autonomy striving, and secure attachment. Journal of Personality., 89(5), 899–914. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12622
Levine, S. L., Werner, K. M., Capaldi, J. S., & Milyavskaya, M. (2017). Let’s play the blame game: The distinct effects of personal standards and self-critical perfectionism on attributions of success and failure during goal pursuit. Journal of Research in Personality, 71, 57–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2017.08.005
Little, T. D., Rhemtulla, M., Gibson, K., & Schoemann, A. M. (2013). Why the items versus parcels controversy needn’t be one. Psychological Methods, 18(3), 285–300.
MacKinnon, D. P., Fritz, M. S., Williams, J., & Lockwood, C. M. (2007). Distribution of the product confidence limits for the indirect effect: Program PRODCLIN. Behavior Research Methods, 39(3), 384–389. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193007
MacKinnon, D. (2008). Introduction to Statistical Mediation Analysis (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203809556
Madigan, D. J., Stoeber, J., & Passfield, L. (2016). Motivation mediates the perfectionism–burnout relationship: A three-wave longitudinal study with junior athletes. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 38(4), 341–354. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2015-0238
McDonald, R. P. (1999). Test theory: A unified treatment. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Milyavskaya, M., Nadolny, D., & Koestner, R. (2014). Where do self-concordant goals come from? The role of domain-specific psychological need satisfaction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40(6), 700–711. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214524445
Milyavskaya, M., Nadolny, D., & Koestner, R. (2015). Why do people set more self-concordant goals in need satisfying domains? Testing authenticity as a mediator. Personality and Individual Differences, 77, 131–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.12.028
Milyavskaya, M., & Werner, K. M. (2018). Goal pursuit: Current state of affairs and directions for future research. Canadian Psychology / Psychologie Canadienne, 59(2), 163–175. https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000147
Miočević, M., O’Rourke, H. P., MacKinnon, D. P., & Brown, H. C. (2018). Statistical properties of four effect-size measures for mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, 50(1), 285–301.
Moore, E., Holding, A. C., Hope, N. H., Harvey, B., Powers, T. A., Zuroff, D., & Koestner, R. (2018). Perfectionism and the pursuit of personal goals: A self-determination theory analysis. Motivation and Emotion, 42(1), 37–49. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-017-9654-2
Moore, E., Holding, A. C., Moore, A., Levine, S. L., Powers, T. A., Zuroff, D. C., & Koestner, R. (2021). The role of goal-related autonomy: A self-determination theory analysis of perfectionism, poor goal progress, and depressive symptoms. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 68(1), 88–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000438
Moskowitz, D. S. (1988). Cross-situational generality in the laboratory: Dominance and friendliness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(5), 829–839. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.5.829
Moskowitz, D. S., & Fournier, M. A. (2015). The interplay of persons and situations: Retrospect and prospect. In M. Mikulincer, P. R. Shaver, M. L. Cooper, & R. J. Larsen (Eds.), APA handbook of personality and social psychology, Vol. 4. Personality processes and individual differences (pp. 471–489). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14343-021
Moskowitz, D. S., Suh, E. J., & Desaulniers, J. (1994). Situational influences on gender differences in agency and communion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(4), 753–761. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.66.4.753
Muthén, B., & Muthén, L. (2017). Mplus (pp. 507–518). Chapman and Hall/CRC.
Powers, T. A., Milyavskaya, M., & Koestner, R. (2012). Mediating the effects of self-criticism and self-oriented perfectionism on goal pursuit. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(7), 765–770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.12.031
Preacher, K. J. (2011). Multilevel SEM strategies for evaluating mediation in three-level data. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 46(4), 691–731. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2011.589280
Preacher, K. J., Zyphur, M. J., & Zhang, Z. (2010). A general multilevel SEM framework for assessing multilevel mediation. Psychological Methods, 15(3), 209. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020141
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. Guilford Publications.
Sadikaj, G., Wright, A. G., Dunkley, D. M., Zuroff, D. C., & Moskowitz, D. S. (2021). Multilevel structural equation modeling for intensive longitudinal data: A practical guide for personality researchers. The handbook of personality dynamics and processes (pp. 855–885). Academic Press.
SAS Institute Inc. (2013). SAS/STAT 12.1 User's Guide. Cary, NC: Author.
Shahar, G. (2015). Erosion: The psychopathology of self-criticism. Oxford University Press.
Shahar, G., Blatt, S. J., Zuroff, D. C., & Pilkonis, P. A. (2003). Role of perfectionism and personality disorder features in response to brief treatment for depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(3), 629–633. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.71.3.629
Shahar, G., Henrich, C. C., Winokur, A., Blatt, S. J., Kuperminc, G. P., & Leadbeater, B. J. (2006a). Self-criticism and depressive symptomatology interact to predict middle school academic achievement. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62(1), 147–155. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20210
Shahar, G., Kalnitzki, E., Shulman, S., & Blatt, S. J. (2006b). Personality, motivation, and the construction of goals during the transition to adulthood. Personality & Individual Differences, 40, 53–63.
Sheldon, K. M. (2014). Becoming oneself: The central role of self-concordant goal selection. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 18(4), 349–365. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868314538549
Sheldon, K. M., & Elliot, A. J. (1999). Goal striving, need satisfaction, and longitudinal well-being: The self-concordance model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(3), 482–497. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.3.482
Slemp, G. R., Kern, M. L., Patrick, K. J., & Ryan, R. M. (2018). Leader autonomy support in the workplace: A meta-analytic review. Motivation and Emotion, 42(5), 706–724. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-018-9698-y
Soenens, B., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2005). Antecedents and outcomes of self-determination in 3 life domains: The role of parents’ and teachers’ autonomy support. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34(6), 589–604. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-005-8948-y
Su, Y. L., & Reeve, J. (2011). A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of intervention programs designed to support autonomy. Educational Psychology Review, 23(1), 159–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-010-9142-7
Vansteenkiste, M., Smeet, S., Soenens, B., Lens, W., Matos, L., & Deci, E. L. (2010). Autonomous and controlled regulation of performance-approach goals: Their relations to perfectionism and educational outcomes. Motivation and Emotion, 34(4), 333–353. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-010-9188-3
Vasquez, A. C., Patall, E. A., Fong, C. J., Corrigan, A. S., & Pine, L. (2016). Parent autonomy support, academic achievement, and psychosocial functioning: A meta-analysis of research. Educational Psychology Review, 28(3), 605–644. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9329-z
Werner, K. M., Milyavskaya, M., Foxen-Craft, E., & Koestner, R. (2016). Some goals just feel easier: Self-concordance leads to goal progress through subjective ease, not effort. Personality and Individual Differences, 96, 237–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.03.002
Zuroff, D. C., Clegg, K. A., Levine, S. L., Haward, B., & Thode, S. (2021a). Contributions of trait, domain, and signature components of self-criticism to stress generation. Personality and Individual Differences, 173, 110603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110603
Zuroff, D. C., Clegg, K. A., Levine, S. L., Hermanto, N., Armstrong, B. F., III., Haward, B., & Thode, S. (2021b). Beyond trait models of self-criticism and self-compassion: Variability over domains and the search for signatures. Personality and Individual Differences, 170, 110429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110429
Zuroff, D. C., & Koestner, R. (in press). Autonomy support and autonomous motivation: Common factors in counseling and psychotherapy. In R. Ryan (Ed.) Oxford handbook of self-determination theory.
Zuroff, D. C., Mongrain, M., & Santor, D. A. (2004). Conceptualizing and measuring personality vulnerability to depression: comment on Coyne and Whiffen (1995). Psychological Bulletin, 130, 489–511. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.489
Zuroff, D. C., Sadikaj, G., Kelly, A. C., & Leybman, M. J. (2016). Conceptualizing and measuring self-criticism as both a personality trait and a personality state. Journal of Personality Assessment, 98(1), 14–21.
Funding
This research was supported in part by Grant #435-2016-0296 from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada to David C. Zuroff (Principal Investigator). This research was supported by a Joseph Armand Bombardier Canada Graduate Scholarship from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada to Shelby L. Levine.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
All authors report no conflicts of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Clegg, KA., Levine, S.L., Zuroff, D.C. et al. A multilevel perspective on self-determination theory: Predictors and correlates of autonomous and controlled motivation. Motiv Emot 47, 229–245 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-022-09995-6
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-022-09995-6