Summary
Brood sizes of the Willow Tit were altered experimentally by subtracting or adding two nestlings in 1986 and 1987 in the vicinity of Oulu, northern Finland. The manipulated broods were within the normal range observed in natural conditions. Unaltered broods were used as controls. Data from natural broods from 1978–1985 were available for comparison. When the nestlings were 13 days old they were ringed and weighed and their tarsus, wing, and tail lengths were measured. On the same day the parents were caught, weighed, and measured. In 1986 there were no differences in nestling mortality between the reduced, control, or enlarged broods; i.e. parents were able to fledge the two extra young. In 1987 starvation was most pronounced in the enlarged broods. This resulted in the number of fledglings being practically the same in each manipulation category. Especially the body weight, but also the other indices of body size, decreased as a function of the brood size category, suggesting that there may be quality differences between the young reared in different experimental groups. In 1986 there was a non-significant trend towards lower body weight of the parents attending reduced, control, or enlarged broods, in that order. In 1987 the differences were much smaller. These results were not due to size differences between the groups, so possibly the increased reproductive effort of raising extra young was responsible for the trend observed in 1986. There were no significant differences in parental survival associated with the manipulation category, although the trend in the females was consistent with the hypothesis of reproductive cost. It is possible that environmental conditions in 1986 were so favourable that the tits were not unduly stressed even when attending two extra young. Correlative data from 1978–1985 did not support the cost hypothesis either. A non-significant trend towards reduced post-fledging survival and recruitment of the young was observed with increased brood size. The average fitness value of parents, incorporating parental survival and number of recruits, showed that the success of the adults raising enlarged broods may be lower than that of others. It seems that the reproductive cost, if it exists, decreases individual fitness value by reducing the chances of recruiting descendants into the next generation. The reproductive stress may be insufficient to reduce the subsequent survival of parents. More data are however needed to confirm these results.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alatalo RV, Lundberg A (1986) Heritability and selection on tarsus length in the pied flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca). Evolution 40:574–583
Alerstam T, Högstedt G (1984) How important is clutch size dependent adult mortality? Oikos 43:253–254
Askenmo C (1977) Effects of addition and removal of nestlings on nestling weight, nestling survival, and female weight loss in the Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca (Pallas). Ornis Scand 8:1–8
Askenmo C (1979) Reproductive effort and return rate of male pied flycatchers. Am Nat 114:748–753
Askenmo C (1982) Clutch size flexibility in the pied flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca. Ardea 70:189–196
Balen JH van (1973) A comparative study of the breeding ecology of the Great Tit Parus major in different habitats. Ardea 61:1–93
Bengtsson H, Rydén O (1983) Parental feeding rate in relation to begging behavior in asynchronously hatched broods of the Great Tit Parus major. An experimental study. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 12:243–251
Boer-Hazewinkel J den (1987) On the cost of reproduction: parental survival and production of second clutches in the great tit. Ardea 75:99–110
Boyce MS, Perrins CM (1987) Optimizing great tit clutch size in a fluctuating enviroment. Ecology 68:142–153
Bryant DM (1975) Breeding biology of House Martins Delichon urbica in relation to aerial insect abundance. Ibis 117:180–216
Bryant DM (1979) Reproductive costs in house martin (Delichon urbica). J Anim Ecol 48:655–675
Bryant DM, Westerterp KR (1983) Time and energy limits to brood size in house martins (Delichon urbica). J Anim Ecol 52:905–925
Busse P, Kania W (1970) Akcja Baltycka 1961–1967 Metody pracy (Operation Baltic 1961–1967. Working methods). Acta Orn 12:231–267
Charnov EL, Krebs JR (1974) On clutch-size and fitness. Ibis 116:217–219
Cronmiller JR, Thompson CF (1980) Experimental manipulation of brood size in red-winged blackbirds. Auk 97:559–565
Crossner KA (1977) Natural selection and clutch size in the European Starling. Ecology 58:885–892
DeSteven D (1980) Clutch size, breeding success, and parental survival in the tree swallow (Iridoprocne bicolor). Evolution 34:278–291
Ekman J (1979) Seasonal changes in demographic parameters of two coniferous forest tit species during the non-breeding season, with aspects of their relation to the territorial system and population dynamics. Ph D Thesis, Dept Zool, Univ Gothenberg
Ekman J (1984) Density-dependent seasonal mortality and population fluctuations of the temperate-zone willow tit (Parus montanus). J Anim Ecol 53:119–134
Ekman J, Askenmo C (1986) Reproductive cost, age-specific survival and a comparison of the reproductive strategy in two European tits (Genus Parus). Evolution 40:159–168
Freed LA (1981) Loss of mass in breeding wrens: stress or adaptation? Ecology 62:1179–1186
Garnett MC (1976) Some aspects of body-size in the Great Tit. Ph D Thesis, Dept Zool, Univ Oxford
Gustafsson L (1985) Fitness factors in the collared flycatcher Ficedula albicollis Temm. Ph D Thesis, Dept Zool, Univ Uppsala
Haartman L von (1949) Der Trauerfliegenschnäpper. Acta Zool Fennica 56:1–104
Hegner RE, Wingfield JC (1987) Effects of brood-size manipulations on parental investment, breeding success, and reproductive endocrinology of house sparrows. Auk 104:470–480
Högstedt G (1980) Evolution of clutch size in birds: adaptive variation in relation to territory quality. Science 210:1148–1150
Högstedt G (1981) Should there be a positive or negative correlation between survival of adults in a bird population and their clutch size? Am Nat 118:568–571
Hussell DJT (1972) Factors affecting clutch size in arctic passerines. Ecol Monographs 42:317–364
Källander H (1983) Aspects of the breeding biology, migratory movements, winter survival, and population fluctuations in the Great Tit Parus major and the Blue Tit P. caeruleus. Ph D Thesis, Dept Anim Ecol, Univ Lund
Koivula K, Orell M (1988) Social rank and winter survival in the willow tit Parus montanus. Ornis Fennica 65 (in press)
Kluyver HN (1961) Food consumption in relation to habitat in breeding chickadees. Auk 78:532–550
Kluyver HN (1963) The determination of reproductive rates in Paridae Proc XIII Int Orn Congr: 760–716
Korpimäki E (1988) Costs of reproduction and success of manipulated broods under varying food conditions in Tengmalm's owl. J Anim Ecol 57 (in press)
Lack D (1947) The significance of clutch size. I. Intraspecific variation. Ibis 89:302–352
Lack D (1966) Population studies of birds. Oxford Univ Press, Oxford
Martin TE (1987) Food as a limit on breeding birds: a life-history perspective. Ann Rev Ecol Syst 18:453–487
Murphy MT (1983) Clutch size in the eastern kingbird: factors affecting nestling survival. Auk 100:326–334
Neub M (1979) Brutbiologische Konsequenzen des asynchronen Schlüpfens bei Kohlmeise (Parus major) and Blaumeise (Parus caeruleus). J Orn 120:196–214
Noordwijk AJ van, Jong G de (1986) Acquisition and allocation of resources: their influence on variation in life history tactics. Am Nat 128:137–142
Norberg RA (1981) Temporary weight decrease in breeding birds may result in more fledged young. Am Nat 118:838–850
Nur N (1984a) The consequences of brood size for breeding blue tits I. Adult survival, weight change and the cost of reproduction. J Anim Ecol 53:479–496
Nur N (1984b) The consequences of brood size for breeding blue tits II. Nestling weight offspring survival and optimal brood size. J Anim Ecol 53:497–517
Nur N (1984c) Feeding frequencies of nestling blue tits (Parus caeruleus): costs, benefits and a model of optimal feeding frequency. Oecologia (Berlin) 65:125–137
O'Connor RJ (1978) Brood reduction in birds: selection for fratricide, infanticide and suicide. Anim Behav 26:79–96
Orell M (1988) Population fluctuation and survival of Great Tits Parus major dependent on food supplied by man in winter. Ibis 130 (in press)
Orell M, Ojanen M (1983) Breeding biology and population dynamics of the willow tit Parus montanus. Ann Zool Fennici 20:99–114
Orell, M, Ojanen M (1986) Relation of fitness of female Great Tits to clutch size and number of broods. Ornis Fennica 63:120–127
Perrins CM (1965) Population fluctuations and clutch-size in the great tit, Parus major L. J Anim Ecol 34:601–647
Perrins CM, Moss D (1975) Reproductive rates in the great tit. J Anim Ecol 44:695–706
Ponowska B (1979) The effect of energy and building resources of females on the production of house sparrow (Passer domesticus (L.)) populations. Ekol Polska 27:363–396
Reid WV (1987) The cost of reproduction in the glaucous-winged gull. Oecologia (Berlin) 74:458–467
Reznick D (1985) Costs of reproduction: an evaluation of the empirical evidence. Oikos 44:257–267
Ricklefs RE (1981) Fitness, reproductive value, age structure, and the optimization of life history patterns. Am Nat 117:819–825
Ricklefs RE, Hussell DJT (1984) Changes in adult mass associated with the nesting cycle in the European Starling. Ornis Scand 15:155–161
Røskaft E (1985) The effect of enlarged brood size on the future reproductive potential of the rook. J Anim Ecol 54:255–260
Schaffer WM (1974) Selection for optimal life histories: the effects of age structure. Ecology 55:291–303
Schifferli L (1978) Experimental modification of brood size among House Sparrows Passer domesticus. Ibis 120:365–369
Slagsvold T (1982) Clutch size, nest size, and hatching asynchrony in birds: experiments with the fieldfare (Turdus pilaris). Ecology 63:1389–1399
Slagsvold T (1984) Clutch size variation in birds in relation to nest predation: on the cost of reproduction. J Anim Ecol 53:945–953
Smith HG, Källander, H, Nilsson J-Å (1987) Effect of experimentally altered brood size on frequency and timing of second clutches in the great tit. Auk 104:700–706
Smith JNM (1981) Does high fecundity reduce survival in song sparrows? Evolution 35:1142–1148
Stearns SC (1976) Life-history tactics: review of the ideas. Quart Rew Biol 51:3–47
Stenseth NC (1984) Optimal reproductive success in animals with parental care Oikos 43:251–252
Svensson L (1970) Identification guide to European passerines. Stockholm
Tinbergen JM (1987) Costs of reproduction in the great tit: interseasonal costs associated with brood size. Ardea 75:111–122
Tinbergen JM, Balen JH van, Eck HM van (1985) Density dependent survival in an isolated great tit population. Kluyvers data reanalysed Ardea 73:38–48
Tuomi J, Hakala T, Haukioja E (1983) Alternative Concepts of Reproductive Effort, Costs of Reproduction, and Selection in Life-History Evolution. Amer Zool 23:25–34
Williams GC (1966) Adaptation and natural selection. Princeton Univ Press, Princeton
Winkel W, Winkel D (1976) Über die brutzeitliche Gewichtsentwicklung beim Trauerschnipper (Ficedula hypoleuca). Ein Beitrag zur Frage “Belastung während der Fortpflanzungsperiode” J Orn 117:419–437
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Orell, M., Koivula, K. Cost of reproduction: parental survival and production of recruits in the Willow Tit Parus montanus . Oecologia 77, 423–432 (1988). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00378054
Received:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00378054