Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Cardiovascular Pharmacology in Pediatric Patients with Congenital Heart Disease

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Congenital Heart Disease in Pediatric and Adult Patients

Abstract

The pharmaceutical agents and the chemical molecules affecting the cardiovascular system are among the most important therapies available for healthcare teams. This chapter deals with different agents including vasoactive agents, inotropes, antihypertensive agents, diuretics, adrenoceptor blockers, drugs used in pulmonary hypertension, antiarrhythmic agents, analgesics, sedatives and anesthetic drugs, drugs for pediatric delirium, stress ulcer prevention and treatment, anticoagulation and thrombolysis drugs, blood products, and antibiotics used for surgical patients.

The approach used in this chapter is discussion of the drugs with their doses and their main clinical considerations; however, citing to specific chapters of the book has been made whenever applicable. In summary, a “concise cookbook of cardiovascular pharmacology” has been prepared in this chapter.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abman SH, Hansmann G, Archer SL, Ivy DD, Adatia I, Chung WK, Hanna BD, Rosenzweig EB, Raj JU, Cornfield D, Stenmark KR, Steinhorn R, Thebaud B, Fineman JR, Kuehne T, Feinstein JA, Friedberg MK, Earing M, Barst RJ, Keller RL, Kinsella JP, Mullen M, Deterding R, Kulik T, Mallory G, Humpl T, Wessel DL. Pediatric pulmonary hypertension: guidelines from the American heart association and American thoracic society. Circulation. 2015;132:2037–99.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ageno W, Gallus AS, Wittkowsky A, Crowther M, Hylek EM, Palareti G. Oral anticoagulant therapy: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American college of chest physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141:e44S–88.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Allen HD, Driscoll DJ, Shaddy RE, Feltes TF. Moss & Adams’ heart disease. In: Infants, children, and adolescents: including the fetus and young adult. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allpress AL, Rosenthal GL, Goodrich KM, Lupinetti FM, Zerr DM. Risk factors for surgical site infections after pediatric cardiovascular surgery. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2004;23:231–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Amanfu RK, Saucerman JJ. Cardiac models in drug discovery and development: a review. Crit Rev Biomed Eng. 2011;39:379–95.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Asmal L, Flegar SJ, Wang J, Rummel-Kluge C, Komossa K, Leucht S. Quetiapine versus other atypical antipsychotics for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;11:CD006625.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atkins DL, Berger S, Duff JP, Gonzales JC, Hunt EA, Joyner BL, Meaney PA, Niles DE, Samson RA, Schexnayder SM. Part 11: Pediatric Basic Life Support and Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation Quality: 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Circulation. 2015;132:S519–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Atz AM, Wessel DL. Inhaled nitric oxide in the neonate with cardiac disease. Semin Perinatol. 1997;21:441–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey AR, Burchett KR. Effect of low-dose dopamine on serum concentrations of prolactin in critically ill patients. Br J Anaesth. 1997;78:97–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bangash MN, Kong ML, Pearse RM. Use of inotropes and vasopressor agents in critically ill patients. Br J Pharmacol. 2012;165:2015–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Baron R, Binder A, Biniek R, Braune S, Buerkle H, Dall P, Demirakca S, Eckardt R, Eggers V, Eichler I, Fietze I, Freys S, Frund A, Garten L, Gohrbandt B, Harth I, Hartl W, Heppner HJ, Horter J, Huth R, Janssens U, Jungk C, Kaeuper KM, Kessler P, Kleinschmidt S, Kochanek M, Kumpf M, Meiser A, Mueller A, Orth M, Putensen C, Roth B, Schaefer M, Schaefers R, Schellongowski P, Schindler M, Schmitt R, Scholz J, Schroeder S, Schwarzmann G, Spies C, Stingele R, Tonner P, Trieschmann U, Tryba M, Wappler F, Waydhas C, Weiss B, Weisshaar G. Evidence and consensus based guideline for the management of delirium, analgesia, and sedation in intensive care medicine. Revision 2015 (DAS-Guideline 2015) - short version. Ger Med Sci. 2015;13:Doc19. doi: 10.3205/000223. eCollection 2015.

  • Beck G, Brinkkoetter P, Hanusch C, Schulte J, van Ackern K, van der Woude FJ, Yard BA. Clinical review: immunomodulatory effects of dopamine in general inflammation. Crit Care. 2004;8:485–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beghetti M, Wacker Bou Puigdefabregas J, Merali S. Sildenafil for the treatment of pulmonary hypertension in children. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther. 2014;12:1157–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Begum N, Shen W, Manganiello V. Role of PDE3A in regulation of cell cycle progression in mouse vascular smooth muscle cells and oocytes: implications in cardiovascular diseases and infertility. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2011;11:725–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bianchi MO, Cheung PY, Phillipos E, Aranha-Netto A, Joynt C. The effect of milrinone on splanchnic and cerebral perfusion in infants with congenital heart disease prior to surgery: an observational study. Shock (Augusta, Ga). 2015;44:115–20.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Biban P, Gaffuri M. Vasopressin and terlipressin in neonates and children with refractory septic shock. Curr Drug Metab. 2013;14:186–92.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bracht H, Calzia E, Georgieff M, Singer J, Radermacher P, Russell JA. Inotropes and vasopressors: more than haemodynamics! Br J Pharmacol. 2012;165:2009–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Brahmbhatt K, Whitgob E. Diagnosis and management of delirium in critically Ill infants: case report and review. Pediatrics. 2016;137:1–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brissaud O, Botte A, Cambonie G, Dauger S, de Saint Blanquat L, Durand P, Gournay V, Guillet E, Laux D, Leclerc F, Mauriat P, Boulain T, Kuteifan K. Experts’ recommendations for the management of cardiogenic shock in children. Ann Intens Care. 2016;6:14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brunner N, de Jesus Perez VA, Richter A, Haddad F, Denault A, Rojas V, Yuan K, Orcholski M, Liao X. Perioperative pharmacological management of pulmonary hypertensive crisis during congenital heart surgery. Pulm Circ. 2014;4:10–24.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bucher BT, Warner BW, Dillon PA. Antibiotic prophylaxis and the prevention of surgical site infection. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2011;23:334–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Capodanno D, Bhatt DL, Goto S, O’Donoghue ML, Moliterno DJ, Tamburino C, Angiolillo DJ. Safety and efficacy of protease-activated receptor-1 antagonists in patients with coronary artery disease: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. J Thromb Haemost: JTH. 2012;10:2006–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carroll SJ, Ferris A, Chen J, Liberman L. Efficacy of prostaglandin E1 in relieving obstruction in coarctation of a persistent fifth aortic arch without opening the ductus arteriosus. Pediatr Cardiol. 2006;27:766–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chaturvedi S, Lipszyc DH, Licht C, Craig JC, Parekh R. Pharmacological interventions for hypertension in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014a;2:Cd008117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chaturvedi S, Lipszyc DH, Licht C, Craig JC, Parekh R. Pharmacological interventions for hypertension in children. Evid Based Child Health: Cochrane Review J. 2014b;9:498–580.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Choong K, Kissoon N. Vasopressin in pediatric shock and cardiac arrest. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2008;9:372–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chu PY, Campbell MJ, Miller SG, Hill KD. Anti-hypertensive drugs in children and adolescents. World J Cardiol. 2014;6:234–44.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • CID=681 NCfBIPCD. 2016. Dopamine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clutter WE, Bier DM, Shah SD, Cryer PE. Epinephrine plasma metabolic clearance rates and physiologic thresholds for metabolic and hemodynamic actions in man. J Clin Invest. 1980;66:94–101.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper BE. Review and update on inotropes and vasopressors. AACN Adv Crit Care. 2008;19:5–13; quiz 14–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Costello JM, Graham DA, Morrow DF, Morrow J, Potter-Bynoe G, Sandora TJ, Pigula FA, Laussen PC. Risk factors for surgical site infection after cardiac surgery in children. Ann Thorac Surg. 2010;89:1833–41; discussion 1841–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Costi D, Cyna AM, Ahmed S, Stephens K, Strickland P, Ellwood J, Larsson JN, Chooi C, Burgoyne LL, Middleton P. Effects of sevoflurane versus other general anaesthesia on emergence agitation in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;9:Cd007084.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curley GF, Shehata N, Mazer CD, Hare GM, Friedrich JO. Transfusion triggers for guiding RBC transfusion for cardiovascular surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis*. Crit Care Med. 2014;42:2611–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cuthbert AW. Lubiprostone targets prostanoid EP(4) receptors in ovine airways. Br J Pharmacol. 2011;162:508–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dahmani S, Stany I, Brasher C, Lejeune C, Bruneau B, Wood C, Nivoche Y, Constant I, Murat I. Pharmacological prevention of sevoflurane- and desflurane-related emergence agitation in children: a meta-analysis of published studies. Br J Anaesth. 2010;104:216–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Backer D, Biston P, Devriendt J, Madl C, Chochrad D, Aldecoa C, Brasseur A, Defrance P, Gottignies P, Vincent JL. Comparison of dopamine and norepinephrine in the treatment of shock. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:779–89.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Caen AR, Berg MD, Chameides L, Gooden CK, Hickey RW, Scott HF, Sutton RM, Tijssen JA, Topjian A, van der Jagt EW, Schexnayder SM, Samson RA. Part 12: Pediatric Advanced Life Support: 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Circulation. 2015;132:S526–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dhull RS, Baracco R, Jain A, Mattoo TK. Pharmacologic treatment of pediatric hypertension. Curr Hypertens Rep. 2016;18:32.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon BS, Beck GJ, Vazquez MA, Greenberg A, Delmez JA, Allon M, Dember LM, Himmelfarb J, Gassman JJ, Greene T, Radeva MK, Davidson IJ, Ikizler TA, Braden GL, Fenves AZ, Kaufman JS, Cotton Jr JR, Martin KJ, McNeil JW, Rahman A, Lawson JH, Whiting JF, Hu B, Meyers CM, Kusek JW, Feldman HI. Effect of dipyridamole plus aspirin on hemodialysis graft patency. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:2191–201.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dodgen AL, Hill KD. Safety and tolerability considerations in the use of sildenafil for children with pulmonary arterial hypertension. Drug Healthc Patient Saf. 2015;7:175–83.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Donadini MP, Ageno W, Douketis JD. Management of bleeding in patients receiving conventional or new anticoagulants: a practical and case-based approach. Drugs. 2012;72:1965–75.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Douketis JD, Spyropoulos AC, Spencer FA, Mayr M, Jaffer AK, Eckman MH, Dunn AS, Kunz R. Perioperative management of antithrombotic therapy: Antithrombotic Therapy and Prevention of Thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest. 2012;141:e326S–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Driscoll A, Currey J, Tonkin A, Krum H. Nurse-led titration of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, beta-adrenergic blocking agents, and angiotensin receptor blockers for people with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;12:Cd009889.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drover DR, Hammer GB, Barrett JS, Cohane CA, Reece T, Zajicek A, Schulman SR. Evaluation of sodium nitroprusside for controlled hypotension in children during surgery. Front Pharmacol. 2015;6:136.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Durandy Y. Use of blood products in pediatric cardiac surgery. Artif Organs. 2015;39:21–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eaton MP. Antifibrinolytic therapy in surgery for congenital heart disease. Anesth Analg. 2008;106:1087–100.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elenkov IJ, Wilder RL, Chrousos GP, Vizi ES. The sympathetic nerve--an integrative interface between two supersystems: the brain and the immune system. Pharmacol Rev. 2000;52:595–638.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faraoni D, Goobie SM. The efficacy of antifibrinolytic drugs in children undergoing noncardiac surgery: a systematic review of the literature. Anesth Analg. 2014;118:628–36.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fellin R. “Cardiovascular pharmacology”. In: Dabbagh A, Esmailian F, Aranki SF, editors. Postoperative critical care for cardiac surgical patients. Heidelberg: Springer; 2014. p. 41–72.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrer-Barba A, Gonzalez-Rivera I, Bautista-Hernandez V. Inodilators in the management of low cardiac output syndrome after pediatric cardiac surgery. Curr Vasc Pharmacol. 2016;14:48–57.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelstein Y, Nurmohamed L, Avner M, Benson LN, Koren G. Clopidogrel use in children. J Pediatr. 2005;147:657–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fleming GA, Murray KT, Yu C, Byrne JG, Greelish JP, Petracek MR, Hoff SJ, Ball SK, Brown NJ, Pretorius M. Milrinone use is associated with postoperative atrial fibrillation after cardiac surgery. Circulation. 2008;118:1619–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Flynn JT. Management of hypertension in the young: role of antihypertensive medications. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2011;58:111–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flynn JT, Bradford MC, Harvey EM. Intravenous hydralazine in hospitalized children and adolescents with hypertension. J Pediatr. 2016;168:88–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Franz D, Contreras F, Gonzalez H, Prado C, Elgueta D, Figueroa C, Pacheco R. Dopamine receptors D3 and D5 regulate CD4(+)T-cell activation and differentiation by modulating ERK activation and cAMP production. J Neuroimmunol. 2015;284:18–29.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friederich JA, Butterworth JF. Sodium nitroprusside: twenty years and counting. Anesth Analg. 1995;81:152–62.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friesen RH, Williams GD. Anesthetic management of children with pulmonary arterial hypertension. Paediatr Anaesth. 2008;18:208–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Galante D. Intraoperative management of pulmonary arterial hypertension in infants and children--corrected and republished article. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2011;24:468–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gao Y, Raj JU. Regulation of the pulmonary circulation in the fetus and newborn. Physiol Rev. 2010;90:1291–335.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gentilomo C, Huang YS, Raffini L. Significant increase in clopidogrel use across U.S. children’s hospitals. Pediatr Cardiol. 2011;32:167–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giglia TM, Witmer C, Procaccini DE, Byrnes JW. Pediatric cardiac intensive care society 2014 consensus statement: pharmacotherapies in cardiac critical care anticoagulation and thrombolysis. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2016;17:S77–88.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gist KM, Goldstein SL, Joy MS, Vinks AA. Milrinone dosing issues in critically Ill children with kidney injury: a review. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2016;67:175–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Glund S, Moschetti V, Norris S, Stangier J, Schmohl M, van Ryn J, Lang B, Ramael S, Reilly P. A randomised study in healthy volunteers to investigate the safety, tolerability and pharmacokinetics of idarucizumab, a specific antidote to dabigatran. Thromb Haemost. 2015;113:943–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon NKGR. The organelle of differentiation in embryos: the cell state splitter. Theor Biol Med Model. 2016;13:35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gresele P, Momi S, Falcinelli E. Anti-platelet therapy: phosphodiesterase inhibitors. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2011;72:634–46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Griffin MR. Epidemiology of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug-associated gastrointestinal injury. Am J Med. 1998;104:23S–9; discussion 41S-2S.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Groom RC, Akl BF, Albus R, Lefrak EA. Pediatric cardiopulmonary bypass: a review of current practice. Int Anesthesiol Clin. 1996;34:141–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hansmann G, Apitz C, Abdul-Khaliq H, Alastalo TP, Beerbaum P, Bonnet D, Dubowy KO, Gorenflo M, Hager A, Hilgendorff A, Kaestner M, Koestenberger M, Koskenvuo JW, Kozlik-Feldmann R, Kuehne T, Lammers AE, Latus H, Michel-Behnke I, Miera O, Moledina S, Muthurangu V, Pattathu J, Schranz D, Warnecke G, Zartner P. Executive summary. Expert consensus statement on the diagnosis and treatment of paediatric pulmonary hypertension. The European Paediatric Pulmonary Vascular Disease Network, endorsed by ISHLT and DGPK. Heart. 2016;102 Suppl 2:ii86–100.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hari P, Sinha A. Hypertensive emergencies in children. Indian J Pediatr. 2011;78:569–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herrera AJ, Espinosa-Oliva AM, Carrillo-Jimenez A, Oliva-Martin MJ, Garcia-Revilla J, Garcia-Quintanilla A, de Pablos RM, Venero JL. Relevance of chronic stress and the two faces of microglia in Parkinson’s disease. Front Cell Neurosci. 2015;9:312.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hipp DM, Ely EW. Pharmacological and nonpharmacological management of delirium in critically ill patients. Neurotherapeutics: J Am Soc Exper NeuroTherapeut. 2012;9:158–75.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Holmes CL. Vasoactive drugs in the intensive care unit. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2005;11:413–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holmes CL, Landry DW, Granton JT. Science review: vasopressin and the cardiovascular system part 1 – receptor physiology. Crit Care. 2003;7:427–34.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Holmes CL, Landry DW, Granton JT. Science review: vasopressin and the cardiovascular system part 2 - clinical physiology. Crit Care. 2004;8:15–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hottinger DG, Beebe DS, Kozhimannil T, Prielipp RC, Belani KG. Sodium nitroprusside in 2014: a clinical concepts review. J Anaesthesiol Clin Pharmacol. 2014;30:462–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Iarussi T, Marolla A, Pardolesi A, Patea RL, Camplese P, Sacco R. Sternectomy and sternum reconstruction for infection after cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg. 2008;86:1680–1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jain S, Vaidyanathan B. Oral anticoagulants in pediatric cardiac practice: a systematic review of the literature. Ann Pediatr Cardiol. 2010;3:31–4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jennings LK, Michelson AD, Jacoski MV, Tyagi A, Grgurevich S, Li JS, Picolo I. Pharmacodynamic effects of clopidogrel in pediatric cardiac patients: a comparative study of platelet aggregation response. Platelets. 2012;23:430–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jentzer JC, Coons JC, Link CB, Schmidhofer M. Pharmacotherapy update on the use of vasopressors and inotropes in the intensive care unit. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther. 2015;20:249–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jentzer JC, Mathier MA. Pulmonary hypertension in the intensive care unit. J Intensive Care Med. 2015;31:369–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jobes DR, Sesok-Pizzini D, Friedman D. Reduced transfusion requirement with use of fresh whole blood in pediatric cardiac surgical procedures. Ann Thorac Surg. 2015;99:1706–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joyce C, Witcher R, Herrup E, Kaur S, Mendez-Rico E, Silver G, Greenwald BM, Traube C. Evaluation of the safety of quetiapine in treating delirium in critically Ill children: a retrospective review. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2015;25:666–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kee VR. Hemodynamic pharmacology of intravenous vasopressors. Crit Care Nurse. 2003;23:79–82.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim JS, McSweeney J, Lee J, Ivy D. Pediatric cardiac intensive care society 2014 consensus statement: pharmacotherapies in cardiac critical care pulmonary hypertension. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2016;17:S89–100.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kleinman ME, Chameides L, Schexnayder SM, Samson RA, Hazinski MF, Atkins DL, Berg MD, de Caen AR, Fink EL, Freid EB, Hickey RW, Marino BS, Nadkarni VM, Proctor LT, Qureshi FA, Sartorelli K, Topjian A, van der Jagt EW, Zaritsky AL. Part 14: pediatric advanced life support: 2010 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Circulation. 2010;122:S876–908.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klugman D, Goswami ES, Berger JT. Pediatric cardiac intensive care society 2014 consensus statement: pharmacotherapies in cardiac critical care antihypertensives. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2016;17:S101–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knight WE, Yan C. Cardiac cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases: function, regulation, and therapeutic prospects. Hormone Metabol Res. 2012;44:766–75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kushwah S, Kumar A, Sahana KS. Levosimendan. A promising future drug for refractory cardiac failure in children? Indian Heart J. 2016;68 Suppl 1:S57–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lakshminrusimha S, Mathew B, Leach CL. Pharmacologic strategies in neonatal pulmonary hypertension other than nitric oxide. Semin Perinatol. 2016;40:160–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lambert P, Cyna AM, Knight N, Middleton P. Clonidine premedication for postoperative analgesia in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;1:Cd009633.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landoni G, Biondi-Zoccai G, Greco M, Greco T, Bignami E, Morelli A, Guarracino F, Zangrillo A. Effects of levosimendan on mortality and hospitalization. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies. Crit Care Med. 2012;40:634–46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Langford RM, Mehta V. Selective cyclooxygenase inhibition: its role in pain and anaesthesia. Biomed Pharmacother. 2006;60:323–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Latus H, Delhaas T, Schranz D, Apitz C. Treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension in children. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2015;12:244–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lechner E, Hofer A, Leitner-Peneder G, Freynschlag R, Mair R, Weinzettel R, Rehak P, Gombotz H. Levosimendan versus milrinone in neonates and infants after corrective open-heart surgery: a pilot study. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2012;13:542–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lei C, Xiong LZ. Perioperative Red Blood Cell Transfusion: What We Do Not know. Chin Med J (Engl). 2015;128:2383–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leone M, Martin C. Role of terlipressin in the treatment of infants and neonates with catecholamine-resistant septic shock. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol. 2008;22:323–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lepelletier D, Perron S, Bizouarn P, Caillon J, Drugeon H, Michaud JL, Duveau D. Surgical-site infection after cardiac surgery: incidence, microbiology, and risk factors. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2005;26:466–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levite M. Dopamine and T cells: dopamine receptors and potent effects on T cells, dopamine production in T cells, and abnormalities in the dopaminergic system in T cells in autoimmune, neurological and psychiatric diseases. Acta Physiol (Oxf). 2016;216:42–89.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li MX, Hwang PM. Structure and function of cardiac troponin C (TNNC1): implications for heart failure, cardiomyopathies, and troponin modulating drugs. Gene. 2015;571:153–66.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Liu C, Chen J, Gao Y, Deng B, Liu K. Endothelin receptor antagonists for pulmonary arterial hypertension. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;2:Cd004434.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loy JH, Merry SN, Hetrick SE, Stasiak K. Atypical antipsychotics for disruptive behaviour disorders in children and youths. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;9:Cd008559.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lucas SS, Nasr VG, Ng AJ, Joe C, Bond M, DiNardo JA. Pediatric cardiac intensive care society 2014 consensus statement: pharmacotherapies in cardiac critical care: sedation, analgesia and muscle relaxant. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2016;17:S3–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maconochie IK, de Caen AR, Aickin R, Atkins DL, Biarent D, Guerguerian AM, Kleinman ME, Kloeck DA, Meaney PA, Nadkarni VM, Ng KC, Nuthall G, Reis AG, Shimizu N, Tibballs J, Pintos RV. Part 6: pediatric basic life support and pediatric advanced life support: 2015 international consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations. Resuscitation. 2015;95:e147–68.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Madden K, Turkel S, Jacobson J, Epstein D, Moromisato DY. Recurrent delirium after surgery for congenital heart disease in an infant. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2011;12:e413–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maglione M, Maher AR, Hu J, Wang Z, Shanman R, Shekelle PG, Roth B, Hilton L, Suttorp MJ, Ewing BA, Motala A, Perry T. AHRQ comparative effectiveness reviews. In: Off-label use of atypical antipsychotics: an update. Rockville: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Majure DT, Greco T, Greco M, Ponschab M, Biondi-Zoccai G, Zangrillo A, Landoni G. Meta-analysis of randomized trials of effect of milrinone on mortality in cardiac surgery: an update. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2013;27:220–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Malarbi S, Stargatt R, Howard K, Davidson A. Characterizing the behavior of children emerging with delirium from general anesthesia. Paediatr Anaesth. 2011;21:942–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maldifassi MC, Baur R, Sigel E. Functional sites involved in modulation of the GABA receptor channel by the intravenous anesthetics propofol, etomidate and pentobarbital. Neuropharmacology. 2016;105:207–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maltz LA, Gauvreau K, Connor JA, Jenkins KJ. Clopidogrel in a pediatric population: prescribing practice and outcomes from a single center. Pediatr Cardiol. 2009;30:99–105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marcotti W, Johnson SL, Kros CJ. A transiently expressed SK current sustains and modulates action potential activity in immature mouse inner hair cells. J Physiol. 2004;560:691–708.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Marionneau C, Abriel H. Regulation of the cardiac Na channel Na1.5 by post-translational modifications. J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2015;82:36–47.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin-Stone S. Postoperative bleeding disorders after cardiac surgery. In: Dabbagh A, Esmailian F, Aranki SF, editors. Postoperative critical care for cardiac surgical patients. Berlin: Springer; 2014. p. 161–96. Published with kind permission of © Springer, 2014. All Rights Reserved.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Masi G, Milone A, Veltri S, Iuliano R, Pfanner C, Pisano S. Use of quetiapine in children and adolescents. Paediatr Drugs. 2015;17:125–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maslov MY, Wei AE, Pezone MJ, Edelman ER, Lovich MA. Vascular Dilation, Tachycardia, and Increased Inotropy Occur Sequentially with Increasing Epinephrine Dose Rate, Plasma and Myocardial Concentrations, and cAMP. Heart Lung Circ. 2015;24:912–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mauri L, Kereiakes DJ, Yeh RW, Driscoll-Shempp P, Cutlip DE, Steg PG, Normand SL, Braunwald E, Wiviott SD, Cohen DJ, Holmes Jr DR, Krucoff MW, Hermiller J, Dauerman HL, Simon DI, Kandzari DE, Garratt KN, Lee DP, Pow TK, Ver Lee P, Rinaldi MJ, Massaro JM. Twelve or 30 months of dual antiplatelet therapy after drug-eluting stents. N Engl J Med. 2014;371:2155–66.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McCammond AN, Axelrod DM, Bailly DK, Ramsey EZ, Costello JM. Pediatric cardiac intensive care society 2014 consensus statement: pharmacotherapies in cardiac critical care fluid management. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2016;17:S35–48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McPheeters ML, Warren Z, Sathe N, Bruzek JL, Krishnaswami S, Jerome RN, Veenstra-Vanderweele J. A systematic review of medical treatments for children with autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics. 2011;127:e1312–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mebazaa A, Nieminen MS, Packer M, Cohen-Solal A, Kleber FX, Pocock SJ, Thakkar R, Padley RJ, Poder P, Kivikko M. Levosimendan vs dobutamine for patients with acute decompensated heart failure: the SURVIVE Randomized Trial. JAMA. 2007;297:1883–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mehta PA, Cunningham CK, Colella CB, Alferis G, Weiner LB. Risk factors for sternal wound and other infections in pediatric cardiac surgery patients. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2000;19:1000–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mehta S, Granton J, Gordon AC, Cook DJ, Lapinsky S, Newton G, Bandayrel K, Little A, Siau C, Ayers D, Singer J, Lee TC, Walley KR, Storms M, Cooper DJ, Holmes CL, Hebert P, Presneill J, Russell JA. Cardiac ischemia in patients with septic shock randomized to vasopressin or norepinephrine. Crit Care. 2013;17:R117.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mertens L, Eyskens B, Boshoff D, Gewillig M. Safety and efficacy of clopidogrel in children with heart disease. J Pediatr. 2008;153:61–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Messieha Z. Prevention of sevoflurane delirium and agitation with propofol. Anesth Prog. 2013;60:67–71.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer S, Gortner L, McGuire W, Baghai A, Gottschling S. Vasopressin in catecholamine-refractory shock in children. Anaesthesia. 2008;63:228–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer S, McGuire W, Gottschling S, Mohammed Shamdeen G, Gortner L. The role of vasopressin and terlipressin in catecholamine-resistant shock and cardio-circulatory arrest in children: review of the literature. Wie Med Wochenschr. 2011;161:192–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller CL, Yan C. Targeting cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase in the heart: therapeutic implications. J Cardiovasc Transl Res. 2010;3:507–15.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Moffett BS, Parham AL, Caudilla CD, Mott AR, Gurwitch KD. Oral anticoagulation in a pediatric hospital: impact of a quality improvement initiative on warfarin management strategies. Qual Saf Health Care. 2006;15:240–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Moffett BS, Price JF. Evaluation of sodium nitroprusside toxicity in pediatric cardiac surgical patients. Ann Pharmacother. 2008;42:1600–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moffett BS, Salvin JW, Kim JJ. Pediatric cardiac intensive care society 2014 consensus statement: pharmacotherapies in cardiac critical care antiarrhythmics. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2016;17:S49–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mohanty S, Vaidyanathan B. Anti-platelet agents in pediatric cardiac practice. Ann Pediatr Cardiol. 2013;6:59–64.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Monagle P, Chalmers E, Chan A, DeVeber G, Kirkham F, Massicotte P, Michelson AD. Antithrombotic therapy in neonates and children: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). Chest. 2008;133:887s–968.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Monagle P, Chan AK, Goldenberg NA, Ichord RN, Journeycake JM, Nowak-Gottl U, Vesely SK. Antithrombotic therapy in neonates and children: Antithrombotic Therapy and Prevention of Thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest. 2012;141:e737S–801.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mossad E, Motta P, Sehmbey K, Toscana D. The hemodynamic effects of phenoxybenzamine in neonates, infants, and children. J Clin Anesth. 2008;20:94–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mossad EB. Pro: intraoperative use of nitric oxide for treatment of pulmonary hypertension in patients with congenital heart disease is effective. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2001;15:259–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mossad EB, Motta P, Rossano J, Hale B, Morales DL. Perioperative management of pediatric patients on mechanical cardiac support. Paediatr Anaesth. 2011;21:585–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Motta P, Mossad E, Toscana D, Zestos M, Mee R. Comparison of phenoxybenzamine to sodium nitroprusside in infants undergoing surgery. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2005;19:54–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nateghian A, Taylor G, Robinson JL. Risk factors for surgical site infections following open-heart surgery in a Canadian pediatric population. Am J Infect Control. 2004;32:397–401.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nieminen MS, Fruhwald S, Heunks LM, Suominen PK, Gordon AC, Kivikko M, Pollesello P. Levosimendan: current data, clinical use and future development. Heart Lung Vessel. 2013;5:227–45.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Noori S, Seri I. Neonatal blood pressure support: the use of inotropes, lusitropes, and other vasopressor agents. Clin Perinatol. 2012;39:221–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Brien A, Clapp L, Singer M. Terlipressin for norepinephrine-resistant septic shock. Lancet. 2002;359:1209–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ogawa R, Stachnik JM, Echizen H. Clinical pharmacokinetics of drugs in patients with heart failure: an update (part 2, drugs administered orally). Clin Pharmacokinet. 2014;53:1083–114.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Okamoto Y, Nohmi T, Higa Y, Seki K, Yamashita A. Vasopressin does not raise cardiac enzymes following cardiac surgery: a randomized double-blind clinical trial. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2015;29:46–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ostrye J, Hailpern SM, Jones J, Egan B, Chessman K, Shatat IF. The efficacy and safety of intravenous hydralazine for the treatment of hypertension in the hospitalized child. Pediatr Nephrol (Berlin, Germany). 2014;29:1403–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pacheco R, Contreras F, Zouali M. The dopaminergic system in autoimmune diseases. Front Immunol. 2014;5:117.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Papp Z, Edes I, Fruhwald S, De Hert SG, Salmenpera M, Leppikangas H, Mebazaa A, Landoni G, Grossini E, Caimmi P, Morelli A, Guarracino F, Schwinger RH, Meyer S, Algotsson L, Wikstrom BG, Jorgensen K, Filippatos G, Parissis JT, Gonzalez MJ, Parkhomenko A, Yilmaz MB, Kivikko M, Pollesello P, Follath F. Levosimendan: molecular mechanisms and clinical implications: consensus of experts on the mechanisms of action of levosimendan. Int J Cardiol. 2012;159:82–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parham WA, Mehdirad AA, Biermann KM, Fredman CS. Hyperkalemia revisited. Tex Heart Inst J. 2006;33:40–7.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Payani N, Foroughi M, Dabbagh A. The effect of intravenous administration of active recombinant factor VII on postoperative bleeding in cardiac valve reoperations: a randomized clinical trial. Anesth Pain Med. 2015;5:e22846.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Perez KM, Laughon M. Sildenafil in term and premature infants: a systematic review. Clin Ther. 2015;37:2598–607. e2591.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pollack Jr CV, Reilly PA, Eikelboom J, Glund S, Verhamme P, Bernstein RA, Dubiel R, Huisman MV, Hylek EM, Kamphuisen PW, Kreuzer J, Levy JH, Sellke FW, Stangier J, Steiner T, Wang B, Kam CW, Weitz JI. Idarucizumab for Dabigatran Reversal. N Engl J Med. 2015;373:511–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Poor HD, Ventetuolo CE. Pulmonary hypertension in the intensive care unit. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2012;55:187–98.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Powney MJ, Adams CE, Jones H. Haloperidol for psychosis-induced aggression or agitation (rapid tranquillisation). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;11:Cd009377.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prado C, Bernales S, Pacheco R. Modulation of T-cell mediated immunity by dopamine receptor d5. Endocr Metab Immune Disord Drug Targets. 2013;13:184–94.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pritts CD, Pearl RG. Anesthesia for patients with pulmonary hypertension. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2010;23:411–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Remy KE, Natanson C, Klein HG. The influence of the storage lesion(s) on pediatric red cell transfusion. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2015;27:277–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reveiz L, Guerrero-Lozano R, Camacho A, Yara L, Mosquera PA. Stress ulcer, gastritis, and gastrointestinal bleeding prophylaxis in critically ill pediatric patients: a systematic review. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2010;11:124–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rizza A, Bignami E, Belletti A, Polito A, Ricci Z, Isgro G, Locatelli A, Cogo P. Vasoactive drugs and hemodynamic monitoring in pediatric cardiac intensive care: an Italian survey. World J Pediatr Congenit Heart Surg. 2016;7:25–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rossano JW, Cabrera AG, Jefferies JL, Naim MP, Humlicek T. Pediatric cardiac intensive care society 2014 consensus statement: pharmacotherapies in cardiac critical care chronic heart failure. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2016;17:S20–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell JA. Bench-to-bedside review: vasopressin in the management of septic shock. Crit Care. 2011;15:226.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Salvin JW, Bronicki R, Costello JM, Moffett B, Procaccini D. Pediatric cardiac intensive care society 10th international conference 2014 consensus statement: pharmacotherapies in cardiac critical care. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2016;17:S1–2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Satterthwaite TD, Wolf DH, Rosenheck RA, Gur RE, Caroff SN. A meta-analysis of the risk of acute extrapyramidal symptoms with intramuscular antipsychotics for the treatment of agitation. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;69:1869–79.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schieveld JN, Leroy PL, van Os J, Nicolai J, Vos GD, Leentjens AF. Pediatric delirium in critical illness: phenomenology, clinical correlates and treatment response in 40 cases in the pediatric intensive care unit. Intensive Care Med. 2007;33:1033–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schieveld JN, van der Valk JA, Smeets I, Berghmans E, Wassenberg R, Leroy PL, Vos GD, van Os J. Diagnostic considerations regarding pediatric delirium: a review and a proposal for an algorithm for pediatric intensive care units. Intensive Care Med. 2009;35:1843–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schouten ES, van de Pol AC, Schouten AN, Turner NM, Jansen NJ, Bollen CW. The effect of aprotinin, tranexamic acid, and aminocaproic acid on blood loss and use of blood products in major pediatric surgery: a meta-analysis. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2009;10:182–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shah PS, Ohlsson A. Sildenafil for pulmonary hypertension in neonates. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;8:Cd005494.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharawy N. Vasoplegia in septic shock: do we really fight the right enemy? J Crit Care. 2014;29:83–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sharma D, Farahbakhsh N, Shastri S, Sharma P. Neonatal hypertension. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2016;1–34. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27072362. doi: 10.1080/14767058.2016.1177816.

  • Sharma D, Pandita A, Shastri S. Neonatal hypertension: an underdiagnosed condition, a review article. Curr Hypertens Rev. 2014;10:205–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silvetti S, Silvani P, Azzolini ML, Dossi R, Landoni G, Zangrillo A. A systematic review on levosimendan in paediatric patients. Curr Vasc Pharmacol. 2015;13:128–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simons FE, Sampson HA. Anaphylaxis: unique aspects of clinical diagnosis and management in infants (birth to age 2 years). J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2015;135:1125–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singh VK, Sharma R, Agrawal A, Varma A. Vasopressin in the pediatric cardiac intensive care unit: myth or reality. Ann Pediatr Cardiol. 2009;2:65–73.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Smith AH, Owen J, Borgman KY, Fish FA, Kannankeril PJ. Relation of milrinone after surgery for congenital heart disease to significant postoperative tachyarrhythmias. Am J Cardiol. 2011;108:1620–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Smith HA, Gangopadhyay M, Goben CM, Jacobowski NL, Chestnut MH, Savage S, Rutherford MT, Denton D, Thompson JL, Chandrasekhar R, Acton M, Newman J, Noori HP, Terrell MK, Williams SR, Griffith K, Cooper TJ, Ely EW, Fuchs DC, Pandharipande PP. The preschool confusion assessment method for the ICU: valid and reliable delirium monitoring for critically Ill infants and children. Crit Care Med. 2016;44:592–600.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Soman T, Rafay MF, Hune S, Allen A, MacGregor D, deVeber G. The risks and safety of clopidogrel in pediatric arterial ischemic stroke. Stroke. 2006;37:1120–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stahl W, Bracht H, Radermacher P, Thomas J. Year in review 2009: critical care–shock. Crit Care. 2010;14:239.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Strobel AM, le Lu N. The critically Ill infant with congenital heart disease. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2015;33:501–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas C, Svehla L, Moffett BS. Sodium-nitroprusside-induced cyanide toxicity in pediatric patients. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2009;8:599–602.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Trappe HJ, Brandts B, Weismueller P. Arrhythmias in the intensive care patient. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2003;9:345–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Twite MD, Friesen RH. The anesthetic management of children with pulmonary hypertension in the cardiac catheterization laboratory. Anesthesiol Clin. 2014;32:157–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van den Berghe G, de Zegher F. Anterior pituitary function during critical illness and dopamine treatment. Crit Care Med. 1996;24:1580–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Dijk M, Knoester H, van Beusekom BS, Ista E. Screening pediatric delirium with an adapted version of the Sophia Observation withdrawal Symptoms scale (SOS). Intensive Care Med. 2012;38:531–2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Hoff SL, O’Neill ES, Cohen LC, Collins BA. Does a prophylactic dose of propofol reduce emergence agitation in children receiving anesthesia? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Paediatr Anaesth. 2015;25:668–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Varon J, Marik PE. Clinical review: the management of hypertensive crises. Crit Care. 2003;7:374–84.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Vasu TS, Cavallazzi R, Hirani A, Kaplan G, Leiby B, Marik PE. Norepinephrine or dopamine for septic shock: systematic review of randomized clinical trials. J Intensive Care Med. 2012;27:172–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vaughan Williams EM. Relevance of cellular to clinical electrophysiology in interpreting antiarrhythmic drug action. Am J Cardiol. 1989;64:5j–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vaughan Williams EM. The relevance of cellular to clinical electrophysiology in classifying antiarrhythmic actions. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1992;20 Suppl 2:S1–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ventetuolo CE, Klinger JR. Management of acute right ventricular failure in the intensive care unit. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2014;11:811–22.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Verghese ST, Hannallah RS. Acute pain management in children. J Pain Res. 2010;3:105–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Vijarnsorn C, Winijkul G, Laohaprasitiporn D, Chungsomprasong P, Chanthong P, Durongpisitkul K, Soonswang J, Nana A, Subtaweesin T, Sriyoschati S, Pooliam J. Postoperative fever and major infections after pediatric cardiac surgery. J Med Assoc Thai. 2012;95:761–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vorhies EE, Ivy DD. Drug treatment of pulmonary hypertension in children. Paediatr Drugs. 2014;16:43–65.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wang A. Review of vorapaxar for the prevention of atherothrombotic events. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2015;16:2509–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang RC, Jiang FM, Zheng QL, Li CT, Peng XY, He CY, Luo J, Liang ZA. Efficacy and safety of sildenafil treatment in pulmonary arterial hypertension: a systematic review. Respir Med. 2014;108:531–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Warshaw G, Mechlin M. Prevention and management of postoperative delirium. Int Anesthesiol Clin. 2009;47:137–49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Watt K, Li JS, Benjamin Jr DK, Cohen-Wolkowiez M. Pediatric cardiovascular drug dosing in critically ill children and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2011;58:126–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf CM, Berul CI. Molecular mechanisms of inherited arrhythmias. Curr Genomics. 2008;9:160–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Xue H, Lu Z, Tang WL, Pang LW, Wang GM, Wong GW, Wright JM. First-line drugs inhibiting the renin angiotensin system versus other first-line antihypertensive drug classes for hypertension. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;1:Cd008170.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yan C, Miller CL, Abe J. Regulation of phosphodiesterase 3 and inducible cAMP early repressor in the heart. Circ Res. 2007;100:489–501.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zaccolo M, Movsesian MA. cAMP and cGMP signaling cross-talk: role of phosphodiesterases and implications for cardiac pathophysiology. Circ Res. 2007;100:1569–78.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao CY, Greenstein JL, Winslow RL. Interaction between phosphodiesterases in the regulation of the cardiac beta-adrenergic pathway. J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2015;88:29–38.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao CY, Greenstein JL, Winslow RL. Roles of phosphodiesterases in the regulation of the cardiac cyclic nucleotide cross-talk signaling network. J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2016;91:215–27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao W, Huang Y, Liu Z, Cao BB, Peng YP, Qiu YH. Dopamine receptors modulate cytotoxicity of natural killer cells via cAMP-PKA-CREB signaling pathway. PLoS One. 2013;8:e65860.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zipes DP, Camm AJ, Borggrefe M, Buxton AE, Chaitman B, Fromer M, Gregoratos G, Klein G, Moss AJ, Myerburg RJ, Priori SG, Quinones MA, Roden DM, Silka MJ, Tracy C, Smith Jr SC, Jacobs AK, Adams CD, Antman EM, Anderson JL, Hunt SA, Halperin JL, Nishimura R, Ornato JP, Page RL, Riegel B, Priori SG, Blanc JJ, Budaj A, Camm AJ, Dean V, Deckers JW, Despres C, Dickstein K, Lekakis J, McGregor K, Metra M, Morais J, Osterspey A, Tamargo JL, Zamorano JL. ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 guidelines for management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force and the European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Develop Guidelines for Management of Patients With Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;48:e247–346.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zou Z, Yuan HB, Yang B, Xu F, Chen XY, Liu GJ, Shi XY. Perioperative angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockers for preventing mortality and morbidity in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;1:Cd009210.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Cardiac Anesthesiology Department, Anesthesiology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

    Ali Dabbagh MD

  2. Anesthesiology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

    Zahra Talebi Pharm D

  3. Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Science, Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran

    Samira Rajaei MD, PhD

Authors
  1. Ali Dabbagh MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Zahra Talebi Pharm D
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Samira Rajaei MD, PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ali Dabbagh MD .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Cardiac Anesthesiology Department, Anesthesiology Research Center Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

    Ali Dabbagh

  2. Kaiser Permanente Los Angeles Medical Center Division of Cardiac Anesthesiology, Los Angeles, California, USA

    Antonio Hernandez Conte

  3. Department of Anesthesiology, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA

    Lorraine Lubin

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Dabbagh, A., Talebi, Z., Rajaei, S. (2017). Cardiovascular Pharmacology in Pediatric Patients with Congenital Heart Disease. In: Dabbagh, A., Conte, A., Lubin, L. (eds) Congenital Heart Disease in Pediatric and Adult Patients. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-44691-2_4

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-44691-2_4

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-44689-9

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-44691-2

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation