Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Production of Red Plant Pigments

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Plant Specialized Metabolites

Part of the book series: Reference Series in Phytochemistry ((RSP))

  • 26 Accesses

Abstract

Natural red pigments are in great demand not only for their striking color but also for the added bioactive properties they confer. Their bioactive character gives them a beneficial metabolic effect on health, as evidenced by their protective action against human diseases. The interest in natural plant red pigments is part of society’s awareness regarding bio-healthy habits, where diet plays a key role. As the number of customers demanding increasingly natural products grows, companies and retailers feel the need to improve and meet the demands of their end-consumers, which has led to substantial commercial attention being paid to these products. Nowadays, food labels are closely scrutinized by consumers looking for clearly recognizable natural ingredients and prefer foods that display labels free of chemical additives. Researchers are concerned about these issues, and there are numerous papers on the production, stabilization, and applications of natural red pigments of a wide variety of origin and nature. Red colors in plants can be provided by three families of pigments: carotenoids, anthocyanins, and betacyanins. Although structurally quite different and with distinct chemical properties, all of them add to their colorant capacity, interesting bioactive characteristics that are highly valued by consumers.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Shetty MJ, Geethalekshmi PR, Min C (2017) Natural pigments as potential food colourants: a review. Trends Biosci 10:4057–4064

    Google Scholar 

  2. Sun T, Rao S, Zhou X, Li L (2022) Plant carotenoids: recent advances and future perspectives. Mol Hortic 2:3

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Dörnenburg H, Knorr D (1997) Challenges and opportunities of metabolite production from plant cell and tissue culture. Food Technol 51:47–54

    Google Scholar 

  4. Goodwin TW (1986) Metabolism, nutrition, and function of carotenoids. Annu Rev Nutr 6:273–297

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Bridle P, Timberlake CF (1997) Anthocyanins as natural food colours—selected aspects. Food Chem 58:103–109

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Wrolstad RE (2004) Anthocyanin pigments—bioactivity and coloring properties. J Food Sci 69:C419–C425

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Polturak G, Grossman N, Vela-Corcia D, Dong Y, Nudel A, Pliner M, Levy M, Rogachev I, Aharoni A (2017) Engineered gray mold resistance, antioxidant capacity and pigmentation in betalain producing crops and ornamentals. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 114:9062–9067

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Fernández-López JA, Fernández-Lledó V, Angosto JM (2020) New insights into red plant pigments: more than just natural colorants. RSC Adv 10:24669–24682

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Hutchings J (2006) Talking about color and ethics. Color Res Appl 31:87–89

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Sloan AE (2017) What’s up, what’s next with consumers. Food Technol 71:62–63

    Google Scholar 

  11. McAvoy SA (2014) Global regulations of food colors. Manuf Confect 94:77–86

    Google Scholar 

  12. Carreño J, Martínez A, Almela L, Fernández-López JA (1996) Measuring the color of table grapes. Color Res Appl 21:50–54

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Sigurdson GT, Tang P, Giusti MM (2017) Natural colorants: food colorants from natural sources. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol 8:261–280

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Mortensen A (2006) Carotenoids and other pigments as natural colorants. Pure Appl Chem 78:1477–1491

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Esatbeyoglu T, Wagner AE, Schini-Kerth VB, Rimbach G (2015) Betanin—a food colorant with biological activity. Mol Nutr Food Res 59:36–47

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Castellar MR, Obón JM, Alacid M, Fernández-López JA (2008) Fermentation of Opuntia stricta (Haw.) fruits for betalains concentration. J Agric Food Chem 56:4253–4257

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Sen T, Barrow CJ, Deshmukh SK (2019) Microbial pigments in the food industry—challenges and the way forward. Front Nutr 6:7

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Rather LJ, Mir SS, Ganie SA, Islam SU, Li Q (2022) Research progress, challenges, and perspectives in microbial pigment production for industrial applications-a review. Dyes Pigments 210:110989

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Chekanov K (2023) Diversity and distribution of carotenogenic algae in Europe: a review. Mar Drugs 21:108

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Borges ME, Tejera RL, Díaz L, Esparza P, Ibáñez E (2012) Natural dyes extraction from cochineal (Dactylopius coccus). New extraction methods. Food Chem 132:1855–1860

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Yoshimura S, Ranbjar R, Inoue R, Katsuda T, Katoh S (2006) Effective utilization of transmitted light for astaxanthin production of Haematococcus pluvialis. J Biosci Bioeng 102:97–101

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Stachowiak B, Szulc P (2021) Astaxanthin for the food industry. Molecules 26:2666

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. Walker LA, Wang T, Xin H, Dolde D (2012) Supplementation of laying-hen feed with palm tocos and algae astaxanthin for egg yolk nutrient enrichment. J Agric Food Chem 60:1989–1999

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Ambati RR, Pang SM, Ravi S, Aswathanarayana RG (2014) Astaxanthin: sources, extraction, stability, biological activities and its commercial applications—a review. Mar Drugs 12:128–152

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Jing Y, Wang Y, Zhou D, Wang J, Li J, Sun J, Feng Y, Xin F, Zhang W (2022) Advances in the synthesis of three typical tetraterpenoids including β-carotene, lycopene and astaxanthin. Biotechnol Adv 61:108033

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Ritu JR, Ambati RR, Ravishankar GA, Shahjahan M, Khan S (2023) Utilization of astaxanthin from microalgae and carotenoid rich algal biomass as a feed supplement in aquaculture and poultry industry: an overview. J Appl Phycol 35:145–171

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Lu Q, Li H, Zou Y, Liu H, Yang L (2021) Astaxanthin as a microalgal metabolite for aquaculture: a review on the synthetic mechanisms, production techniques, and practical application. Algal Res 54:102178

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Martín JF, Gudiña E, Barredo JL (2008) Conversion of β-carotene into astaxanthin: two separate enzymes or a bifunctional hydroxylase-ketolase protein? Microb Cell Factories 7:3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Cunningham FX Jr, Gantt E (2011) Elucidation of the pathway to astaxanthin in the flowers of Adonis aestivalis. Plant Cell 23:3055–3069

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Renstrøm B, Berger H, Liaaen-Jensen S (1981) Esterified, optical pure (3S, 3'S)-astaxanthin from flowers of Adonis annua. Biochem System Ecol 9:249–250

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Gross J (1987) Pigments in fruits. Academic Press, London

    Google Scholar 

  32. Britton G (1998) Overview of carotenoid biosynthesis. In: Britton G, Liaaen Jensen S, Pfander H (eds) Carotenoids: biosynthesis and metabolism. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel

    Google Scholar 

  33. Walter MH, Strack D (2011) Carotenoids and their cleavage products: biosynthesis and functions. Nat Prod Rep 28:663–692

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Fraser PD, Bramley PM (2004) The biosynthesis and nutritional uses of carotenoids. Prog Lipid Res 43:228–265

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Sandmann G (2015) Carotenoids of biotechnological importance. In: Schrader J, Bohlmann J (eds) Biotechnology of isoprenoids. Springer, Heidelberg

    Google Scholar 

  36. Khoo HE, Prasad KN, Kong KW, Jiang Y, Ismail A (2011) Carotenoids and their isomers: color pigments in fruits and vegetables. Molecules 16:1710–1738

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. Krinsky NI, Johnson EJ (2005) Carotenoid actions and their relation to health and disease. Mol Asp Med 26:459–516

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Cazzonelli CI (2011) Carotenoids in nature: insights from plants and beyond. Funct Plant Biol 38:833–847

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Havaux M (1998) Carotenoids as membrane stabilizers in chloroplasts. Trends Plant Sci 3:147–151

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Domonkos I, Kis M, Gombos Z, Ughy B (2013) Carotenoids, versatile components of oxygenic photosynthesis. Prog Lipid Res 52:539–561

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Husain N, Kumar A (2012) Reactive oxygen species and natural antioxidants: a review. Adv Biores 3:164–175

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Edreva A, Velikova V, Tsonev T, Dagnon S, Gürel A, Aktaş L, Gesheva E (2008) Stress-protective role of secondary metabolites: diversity of functions and mechanisms. Gen Appl Plant Physiol 34:67–78

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Aizawa K, Iwasaki Y, Ouchi A, Inakuma T, Nagaoka SI, Terao J, Mukai K (2011) Development of singlet oxygen absorption capacity (SOAC) assay method. 2. Measurements of the SOAC values for carotenoids and food extracts. J Agric Food Chem 59:3717–3729

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Kamiloglu S, Demirci M, Selen S, Toydemir G, Boyacioglu D, Capanoglu E (2014) Home processing of tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum): effects on in vitro bioaccessibility of total lycopene, phenolics, flavonoids, and antioxidant capacity. J Sci Food Agric 94:2225–2233

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Nieto-Sandoval JM, Fernández-López JA, Almela L, Muñoz JA (1999) Dependence between apparent color and extractable color in paprika. Color Res Appl 24:93–97

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Rowles JL, Ranard KM, Smith JW, An R, Erdman JW (2017) Increased dietary and circulating lycopene are associated with reduced prostate cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis 20:361–377

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Ip BC, Liu C, Ausman LM, von Lintig J, Wang XD (2014) Lycopene attenuated hepatic tumorigenesis via differential mechanisms depending on carotenoid cleavage enzyme in mice. Cancer Prev Res 7:1219–1227

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Lidebjer C, Leanderson P, Ernerudh J, Jonasson L (2007) Low plasma levels of oxygenated carotenoids in patients with coronary artery disease. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 17:448–456

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Baswan SM, Klosner AE, Weir C, Salter-Venzon D, Gellenbeck KW, Leverett J, Krutmann J (2021) Role of ingestible carotenoids in skin protection: a review of clinical evidence. Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed 37:490–504

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Silva SC, Ferreira IC, Dias MM, Barreiro MF (2020) Microalgae-derived pigments: a 10-year bibliometric review and industry and market trend analysis. Molecules 25:3406

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. Domínguez R, Gullón P, Pateiro M, Munekata PE, Zhang W, Lorenzo JM (2020) Tomato as potential source of natural additives for meat industry. A review Antioxidants 9:73

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Bramley PM (2000) Is lycopene beneficial to human health? Phytochemistry 54:233–236

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Hussain A, Pu H, Sun DW (2019) Measurements of lycopene contents in fruit: a review of recent developments in conventional and novel techniques. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 59:758–769

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Ho KKHY, Ferruzzi MG, Liceaga AM, San Martín-González MF (2015) Microwave-assisted extraction of lycopene in tomato peels: effect of extraction conditions on all-trans and cis-isomer yields. LWT 62:160–168

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Kumcuoglu S, Yilmaz T, Tavman S (2014) Ultrasound assisted extraction of lycopene from tomato processing wastes. J Food Sci Technol 51:4102–4107

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Strati IF, Oreopoulou V (2011) Effect of extraction parameters on the carotenoid recovery from tomato waste. Int J Food Sci Technol 46:23–29

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Amiri-Rigi A, Abbasi S (2016) Microemulsion-based lycopene extraction: effect of surfactants, co-surfactants and pretreatments. Food Chem 197:1002–1007

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Lavecchia R, Zuorro A (2008) Improved lycopene extraction from tomato peels using cell-wall degrading enzymes. Eur Food Res Technol 228:153–158

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Kehili M, Kammlott M, Choura S, Zammel A, Zetzl C, Smirnova I, Allouche N, Sayadi S (2017) Supercritical CO2 extraction and antioxidant activity of lycopene and β-carotene-enriched oleoresin from tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum L) peels by-product of a Tunisian industry. Food Bioprod Process 102:340–349

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Li Y, Cui Z, Hu L (2022) Recent technological strategies for enhancing the stability of lycopene in processing and production. Food Chem 405:134799

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Souza AL, Hidalgo-Chávez DW, Pontes SM, Gomes FS, Cabral LM, Tonon RV (2018) Microencapsulation by spray drying of a lycopene-rich tomato concentrate: characterization and stability. LWT 91:286–292

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Castañeda-Ovando A, Pacheco-Hernández ML, Páez-Hernández ME, Rodríguez JA, Galán-Vidal CA (2009) Chemical studies of anthocyanins: a review. Food Chem 113:859–871

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Qi Q, Chu M, Yu X, Xie Y, Li Y, Du Y, Liu X, Zhang Z, Shi J, Yan N (2022) Anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins: chemical structures, food sources, bioactivities, and product development. Food Rev Int:1–29

    Google Scholar 

  64. Yan W, Li J, Lin X, Wang L, Yang X, Xia X, Zhang Y, Yang S, Li H, Deng X, Qingbo K (2022) Changes in plant anthocyanin levels in response to abiotic stresses: a meta-analysis. Plant Biotechnol Rep 16:497–508

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Kaur S, Tiwari V, Kumari A, Chaudhary E, Sharma A, Ali U, Garg M (2023) Protective and defensive role of anthocyanins under plant abiotic and biotic stresses: An emerging application in sustainable agriculture. J Biotechnol 361:12–29

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Alappat B, Alappat J (2020) Anthocyanin pigments: beyond aesthetics. Molecules 25:5500

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Luo X, Wang R, Wang J, Li Y, Luo H, Chen S, Zeng X, Han Z (2022) Acylation of anthocyanins and their applications in the food industry: mechanisms and recent research advances. Foods 11:2166

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Tang B, He Y, Liu J, Zhang J, Li J, Zhou J, Ye Y, Wang J, Wang X (2019) Kinetic investigation into pH-dependent color of anthocyanin and its sensing performance. Dyes Pigments 170:107643

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Trouillas P, Sancho-García JC, De Freitas V, Gierschner J, Otyepka M, Dangles O (2016) Stabilizing and modulating color by copigmentation: insights from theory and experiment. Chem Rev 116:4937–4982

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Boulton R (2001) The copigmentation of anthocyanins and its role in the color of red wine: a critical review. Am J Enol Vitic 52:67–87

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Gras CC, Nemetz N, Carle R, Schweiggert RM (2017) Anthocyanins from purple sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) and their color modulation by the addition of phenolic acids and food-grade phenolic plant extracts. Food Chem 235:265–274

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Lee J, Durst RW, Wrolstad RE (2005) Determination of total monomeric anthocyanin pigment content of fruit, juices, beverages, natural colorants, and wines by the pH differential method: collaborative study. J AOAC Int 88:1269–1278

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Singh MC, Kelso C, Price WE, Probst Y (2020) Validated liquid chromatography separation methods for identification and quantification of anthocyanins in fruit and vegetables: a systematic review. Food Res Int 138:109754

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Sunil L, Shetty NP (2022) Biosynthesis and regulation of anthocyanin pathway genes. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 106:1783–1798

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Zhao X, Zhang Y, Long T, Wang S, Yang J (2022) Regulation mechanism of plant pigments biosynthesis: anthocyanins, carotenoids, and betalains. Meta 12:871

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Guo Y, Zhang H, Shao S, Sun S, Yang D, Lv S (2022) Anthocyanin: a review of plant sources, extraction, stability, content determination and modifications. Int J Food Sci Technol 57:7573–7591

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Sun L, Huo J, Liu J, Yu J, Zhou J, Sun C, Wang Y, Leng F (2023) Anthocyanins distribution, transcriptional regulation, epigenetic and post-translational modification in fruits. Food Chem 411:135540

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Barani YH, Zhang M, Mujumdar AS, Chang L (2022) Preservation of color and nutrients in anthocyanin-rich edible flowers: Progress of new extraction and processing techniques. J Food Process Preserv 46:e16474

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Obón JM, Díaz-García MC, Castellar MR (2011) Red fruit juice quality and authenticity control by HPLC. J Food Compos Anal 24:760–771

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Tan J, Han Y, Han B, Qi X, Cai X, Ge S, Xue H (2022) Extraction and purification of anthocyanins: a review. J Agric Food Res 8:100306

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Constantin OE, Istrati DI (2022) Extraction, quantification and characterization techniques for anthocyanin compounds in various food matrices—a review. Horticulturae 8:1084

    Article  Google Scholar 

  82. Tena N, Asuero AG (2022) Up-to-date analysis of the extraction methods for anthocyanins: principles of the techniques, optimization, technical progress, and industrial application. Antioxidants 11:286

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  83. Liu Y, Zhang Y, Zhou Y, Feng X (2022) Anthocyanins in different food matrices: recent updates on extraction, purification and analysis techniques. Crit Rev Anal Chem:1–32

    Google Scholar 

  84. Yang S, Mi L, Wu J, Liao X, Xu Z (2022) Strategy for anthocyanins production: from efficient green extraction to novel microbial biosynthesis. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2022.2067117

  85. Ijod G, Musa FN, Anwar F, Suleiman N, Adzahan NM, Azman EM (2022) Thermal and nonthermal pretreatment methods for the extraction of anthocyanins: a review. J Food Process Preserv 46:e17255

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Enaru B, Drețcanu G, Pop TD, Stânilâ A, Zorița D (2021) Anthocyanins: factors affecting their stability and degradation. Antioxidants 10:1967

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  87. Schlindweinn EB, Chacon WDC, Koop BL, Fonseca JS, Monteiro AR, Valencia GA (2022) Starch-based materials encapsulating anthocyanins: a review. J Polym Environ 30:3547–3565

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Rosales TKO, Fabi JP (2022) Nanoencapsulated anthocyanin as a functional ingredient: technological application and future perspectives. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 218:112707

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Sharif N, Khoshnoudi-Nia S, Jafari SM (2020) Nano/microencapsulation of anthocyanins; a systematic review and meta-analysis. Food Res Int 132:109077

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Tan C, Dadmohammadi Y, Lee MC, Abbaspourrad A (2021) Combination of copigmentation and encapsulation strategies for the synergistic stabilization of anthocyanins. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 20:3164–3191

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Sandoval-Ramírez BA, Catalán U, Llauradó E, Valls RM, Salamanca P, Rubió L, Yuste S, Solá R (2022) The health benefits of anthocyanins: an umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses of observational studies and controlled clinical trials. Nutr Rev 80:1515–1530

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Suresh S, Begum RF, Singh SA, Chitra V (2022) Anthocyanin as a therapeutic in Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review of preclinical evidences. Ageing Res Rev 76:101595

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Li W, Peng C, Zhaojie L, Wei W (2022) Chemopreventive and therapeutic properties of anthocyanins in breast cancer: a comprehensive review. Nutr Res 107:48–64

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Nabi BG, Mukhtar K, Ahmed W, Manzoor MF, Ranjha MMAN, Kieliszek M, Bhat ZF, Aadil RM (2023) Natural pigments: anthocyanins, carotenoids, chlorophylls, and betalains as colorants in food products. Food Biosci 52:102403

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on food additives. Off J Eur Union L354(51):16

    Google Scholar 

  96. Ayvaz H, Cabaroglu T, Akyildiz A, Pala CU, Temizkan R, Ağçam E, Ayvaz Z, Durazzo A, Lucarini M, Direito R, Diaconeasa Z (2023) Anthocyanins: metabolic digestion, bioavailability, therapeutic effects, current pharmaceutical/industrial use, and innovation potential. Antioxidants 12:48

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Moreno-Ley CM, Osorio-Revilla G, Hernández-Martínez DM, Ramos-Monroy OA, Gallardo-Velázquez T (2021) Anti-inflammatory activity of betalains: a comprehensive review. Human Nutr Metabolism 25:200126

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Fernández-López JA, Castellar R, Obón JM, Almela L (2002) Screening and mass-spectral confirmation of betalains in cactus pears. Chromatographia 56:591–595

    Article  Google Scholar 

  99. Kumorkiewicz-Jamro A, Świergosz T, Sutor K, Spórna-Kucab A, Wybraniec S (2021) Multi-colored shades of betalains: recent advances in betacyanin chemistry. Nat Prod Rep 38:2315–2346

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Tanaka Y, Sasaki N, Ohmiya A (2008) Biosynthesis of plant pigments: anthocyanins, betalains and carotenoids. Plant J 54:733–749

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Polturak G, Aharoni A (2018) “La Vie en Rose”: biosynthesis, sources, and applications of betalain pigments. Mol Plant 11:7–22

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Hadipour E, Taleghani A, Tayarani-Najaran N, Tayarani-Najaran Z (2020) Biological effects of red beetroot and betalains: a review. Phytother Res 34:1847–1867

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Cai YZ, Corke H (2000) Production and properties of spray-dried Amaranthus betacyanin pigments. J Food Sci 65:1248–1252

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Sakuta M (2014) Diversity in plant red pigments: anthocyanins and betacyanins. Plant Biotechnol Rep 8:37–48

    Article  Google Scholar 

  105. Slimen IB, Najar T, Abderrabba M (2017) Chemical and antioxidant properties of betalains. J Agric Food Chem 65:675–689

    Article  Google Scholar 

  106. Allegra M, Tesoriere L, Livrea MA (2007) Betanin inhibits the myeloperoxidase/nitrite-induced oxidation of human low-density lipoproteins. Free Radic Res 41:335–341

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Tesoriere L, Butera D, Allegra M, Fazzari M, Livrea MA (2005) Distribution of betalain pigments in red blood cells after consumption of cactus pear fruits and increased resistance of the cells to ex vivo induced oxidative hemolysis in humans. J Agric Food Chem 53:1266–1270

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Sakihama Y, Maeda M, Hashimoto M, Tahara S, Hashidoko Y (2012) Beetroot betalain inhibits peroxynitrite-mediated tyrosine nitration and DNA strand cleavage. Free Radic Res 46:93–99

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Silva DVTD, Baiao DDS, Ferreira VF, Paschoalin VMF (2021) Betanin as a multipath oxidative stress and inflammation modulator: a beetroot pigment with protective effects on cardiovascular disease pathogenesis. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 62:539–554

    Article  Google Scholar 

  110. Reddy MK, Alexander-Lindo RL, Nair MG (2005) Relative inhibition of lipid peroxidation, cyclooxygenase enzymes, and human tumor cell proliferation by natural food colors. J Agric Food Chem 53:9268–9273

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Sadowska-Bartosz I, Bartosz G (2021) Biological properties and applications of betalains. Molecules 26:2520

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  112. Stintzing FC, Carle R (2004) Functional properties of anthocyanins and betalains in plants, food, and in human nutrition. Trends Food Sci Technol 15:19–38

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Gaertner VL, Goldman IL (2005) Pigment distribution and total dissolved solids of selected cycles of table beet from a recurrent selection program for increased pigment. J Am Soc Hortic Sci 130:424–433

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Slatnar A, Stampar F, Veberic R, Jakopic J (2015) HPLC-MSn identification of betalain profile of different beetroot (Beta vulgaris L. spp. vulgaris) parts and cultivars. J Food Sci 80:C1952–C1958

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Robert P, Torres V, García P, Vergara C, Sáenz C (2015) The encapsulation of purple cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) pulp by using polysaccharide-proteins as encapsulating agents. LWT 60:1039–1045

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Castellar R, Obón JM, Alacid M, Fernández-López JA (2003) Color properties and stability of betacyanins from Opuntia fruits. J Agric Food Chem 51:2772–2776

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Wybraniec S, Mizrahi Y (2002) Fruit flesh betacyanin pigments in Hylocereus cacti. J Agric Food Chem 50:6086–6089

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Cai Y, Sun M, Wu H, Huang R, Corke H (1998) Characterization and quantification of betacyanin pigments from diverse Amaranthus species. J Agric Food Chem 46:2063–2070

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Akita T, Hina Y, Nishi T (2000) Production of betacyanins by a cell suspension culture of table beet (Beta vulgaris L.). Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 64:1807–1812

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Pavlov A, Georgiev V, Ilieva M (2005) Betalain biosynthesis by red beet (Beta vulgaris L.) hairy root culture. Process Biochem 40:1531–1533

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Azeredo HM (2009) Betalains: properties, sources, applications, and stability–a review. Int J Food Sci Technol 44:2365–2376

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Nabi BG, Mukhtar K, Ahmed W, Manzoor MF, Ranjha MMAN, Kieliszek M, Bhat ZF, Aadil RM (2023) Natural pigments: anthocyanins, carotenoids, chlorophylls, and betalains as food colorants in food products. Food Biosci 52:102403

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Fernández-López JA, Roca MJ, Angosto JM, Obón JM (2018) Betaxanthin-rich extract from cactus pear fruits as yellow water-soluble colorant with potential application in foods. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 73:146–153

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Aykın-Dinçer E, Güngör KK, Çağlar E, Erbaş M (2020) The use of beetroot extract and extract powder in sausages as natural food colorant. Int J Food Eng 17:75–82

    Article  Google Scholar 

  125. Botella-Martínez C, Viuda-Martos M, Fernández-López JA, Pérez-Alvarez JA, Fernández-López J (2022) Development of plant-based burgers using gelled emulsions as fat source and beetroot juice as colorant: effects on chemical, physicochemical, appearance and sensory characteristics. LWT 172:114193

    Article  Google Scholar 

  126. Dabija A, Codină GG, Ropciuc S, Stroe SG (2019) Studies regarding the production of a novel yogurt using some local plant raw materials. J Food Process Preserv 43:e13826

    Article  Google Scholar 

  127. Calva-Estrada SJ, Jiménez-Fernández M, Lugo-Cervantes E (2022) Betalains and their applications in food: the current state of processing, stability and future opportunities in the industry. Food Chem Mol Sci 4:100089

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Chaudhary S, Singh N (2021) Coloring of food by the use of natural color extracted by beetroot (Beta vulgaris), betalain pigment. Sustainability Agri Food Environ Res 9:142–147

    Article  Google Scholar 

  129. Otálora MC, de Jesús BH, Perilla JE, Osorio C, Nazareno MA (2019) Encapsulated betalains (Opuntia ficus-indica) as natural colorants. Case study: Gummy candies. LWT 103:222–227

    Article  Google Scholar 

  130. Ruiz-Gutiérrez MG, Amaya-Guerra CA, Quintero-Ramos A, Pérez-Carrillo E, Meléndez-Pizarro CO (2017) Use of red cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) encapsulated powder to pigment extruded cereal. J Food Qual 2017:7262464

    Article  Google Scholar 

  131. Abiodun OA, Ojo A, Abdulganiu OS, Olosunde OO (2020) Effect of beetroots substitution and storage on the chemical and sensory properties of wheat noodles. Agrosearch 20:1–12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  132. Cai YZ, Sun M, Corke H (2005) Characterization and application of betalain pigments from plants of the Amaranthaceae. Trends Food Sci Technol 16:370–376

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Bahrami LS, Mohebaty M, Arabi SM, Tabesh H, Nematy M, Rezvani R (2022) Protocol: effect of beetroot or beetroot plus vitamin C supplementation on cardiovascular function in patients with coronary artery disease: protocol for a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomised trial. BMJ Open 12:e061394

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  134. Rahimi P, Mesbah-Namin SA, Ostadrahimi A, Abedimanesh S, Separham A, Jafarabadi MA (2019) Effects of betalains on atherogenic risk factors in patients with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Food Funct 10:8286–8297

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Van Hoorebeke JS, Trias CO, Davis BA, Lozada CF, Casazza GA (2016) Betalain-rich concentrate supplementation improves exercise performance in competitive runners. Sports 4:40

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  136. Nambela L, Haule LV, Mgani Q (2020) A review on source, chemistry, green synthesis and application of textile colorants. J Clean Prod 246:119036

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Ganesan P, Karthik T (2017) Analysis of colour strength, colour fastness and antimicrobial properties of silk fabric dyed with natural dye from red prickly pear fruit. J Text Inst 108:1173–1179

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Isah KU, Ahmadu U, Idris A, Kimpa MI, Uno UE, Ndamitso MM, Alu N (2015) Betalain pigments as natural photosensitizers for dye-sensitized solar cells: the effect of dye pH on the photoelectric parameters. Mater Renew Sustain Energy 4:39

    Article  Google Scholar 

  139. Calogero G, Di Marco G, Cazzanti S, Caramori S, Argazzi R, Di Carlo A, Bignozzi CA (2010) Efficient dye-sensitized solar cells using red turnip and purple wild Sicilian prickly pear fruits. Int J Mol Sci 11:254–267

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  140. Tiwari BK, Cullen PJ (2013) Extraction of red beet pigments. In: Red beet biotechnology. Springer, Boston, pp 373–391

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  141. Akan S, Tuna Gunes N, Erkan M (2021) Red beetroot: health benefits, production techniques, and quality maintaining for food industry. J Food Process Preserv 45:e15781

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Cardoso-Ugarte GA, Sosa-Morales ME, Ballard T, Liceaga A, San Martín-González MF (2014) Microwave-assisted extraction of betalains from red beet (Beta vulgaris). LWT 59:276–282

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Chethana S, Nayak CA, Raghavarao KSMS (2007) Aqueous two-phase extraction for purification and concentration of betalains. J Food Eng 81:679–687

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. López N, Puértolas E, Condón S, Raso J, Álvarez I (2009) Enhancement of the extraction of betanin from red beetroot by pulsed electric fields. J Food Eng 90:60–66

    Article  Google Scholar 

  145. Pessoa R, da Silva H, da Silva C, Bolanho BC (2018) Ultrasonic-assisted extraction of betalains from red beet (Beta vulgaris L.). J Food Process Eng 41:e12833

    Article  Google Scholar 

  146. Zvitov R, Schwartz A, Nussinovitch A (2003) Comparison of betalain extraction from beet (Beta vulgaris) by low DC electrical field versus cryogenic freezing. J Texture Stud 34:83–94

    Article  Google Scholar 

  147. Fu Y, Shi J, Xie SY, Zhang TY, Soladoye OP, Aluko RE (2020) Red beetroot betalains: perspectives on extraction, processing, and potential health benefits. J Agric Food Chem 68:11595–11611

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Gonçalves LCP, de Souza TM, Lopes NB, Dörr FA, dos Santos MT, Baader WJ, Oliveira VX Jr, Bastos EL (2012) A comparative study of the purification of betanin. Food Chem 131:231–238

    Article  Google Scholar 

  149. García-Segovia P, Igual M, Martínez-Monzó J (2021) Beetroot microencapsulation with pea protein using spray drying: physicochemical, structural and functional properties. Appl Sci 11:6658

    Article  Google Scholar 

  150. Obón JM, Castellar MR, Alacid M, Fernández-López JA (2009) Production of a red–purple food colorant from Opuntia stricta fruits by spray drying and its application in food model systems. J Food Eng 90:471–479

    Article  Google Scholar 

  151. Fernández-López JA, Angosto JM, Giménez PJ, León G (2013) Thermal stability of selected natural red extracts used as food colorants. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 68:11–17

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Khan MI (2016) Stabilization of betalains: a review. Food Chem 197:1280–1285

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Ribeiro JS, Veloso CM (2021) Microencapsulation of natural dyes with biopolymers for application in food: a review. Food Hydrocoll 112:106374

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Ferreira VC, Ampese LC, Sganzerla WG, Colpini LMS, Forster-Carneiro T (2023) An updated review of recent applications and future perspectives on the sustainable valorization of pitaya (Hylocereus spp.) by-products. Sustain Chem Pharm 33:101070

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Barba FJ, Putnik P, Kovačević DB, Poojary MM, Roohinejad S, Lorenzo JM, Koubaa M (2017) Impact of conventional and non-conventional processing on prickly pear (Opuntia spp.) and their derived products: from preservation of beverages to valorization of by-products. Trends Food Sci Technol 67:260–270

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Leong HY, Ooi CW, Law CL, Julkifle AL, Ling TC, Show PL (2018) Application of liquid biphasic flotation for betacyanins extraction from peel and flesh of Hylocereus polyrhizus and antioxidant activity evaluation. Sep Purif Technol 201:156–166

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Ciriminna R, Fidalgo A, Danzì C, Timpanaro G, Ilharco LM, Pagliaro M (2018) Betanin: a bioeconomy insight into a valued betacyanin. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 6:2860–2865

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This is a contribution of the QUIMYTEC R&D group (Technical University of Cartagena). JAFL would like to dedicate this work to Consuelo López Marín for all her love, sacrifice, and perseverance.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Cartagena (UPCT), Cartagena, Murcia, Spain

    José A. Fernández-López & José M. Obón

Authors
  1. José A. Fernández-López
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. José M. Obón
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to José A. Fernández-López .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Vine and Wine Sciences, University of Bordeaux, Villenave d'Ornon, France

    Jean-Michel Mérillon

  2. Department of Botany, M. L. Sukhadia University, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India

    Kishan Gopal Ramawat

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Fernández-López, J.A., Obón, J.M. (2023). Production of Red Plant Pigments. In: Mérillon, JM., Ramawat, K.G. (eds) Plant Specialized Metabolites. Reference Series in Phytochemistry. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-30037-0_41-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-30037-0_41-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-031-30037-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-031-30037-0

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference Chemistry and Mat. ScienceReference Module Physical and Materials ScienceReference Module Chemistry, Materials and Physics

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation