Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Debris Flow Hazard in India: Current Status, Research Trends, and Emerging Challenges

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Landslides: Detection, Prediction and Monitoring

Abstract

Debris flows are very common and frequently occurring geological processes in mountainous regions worldwide. Debris flows are less focused areas of research in India, although they are responsible for blocking the transportation corridors resulting disrupting the traffic, and blocking the rivers by forming potential landslide dams. Many times, debris flow acts as a destructive disaster costing the loss of many lives and a lot of properties every year. Debris flow hazard-vulnerability-risk assessment for its effective management is the need of this hour in the Indian context. This chapter attempts to present a detailed description of the composition, classification, causes, and characteristics of debris flow. The major triggering factors responsible for occurrences of debris flows in India and the status of debris flow research in India has also been discussed. In the last section, the challenges for debris flow research in India have been listed, and also the possible future prospects have been explored. Debris flows as a type of mass movement process needs special attention. The mitigation measures should be executed after a detailed study on the initiation mechanism, flow characteristics, depositional behavior, and overall hazard assessment.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 109.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abraham MT, Satyam N, Reddy SKP, Pradhan B (2021) Runout modeling and calibration of friction parameters of Kurichermala debris flow, India. Landslides 18:737–754

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen SK, Rastner P, Arora M, Huggel C, Stoffel M (2016) Lake outburst and debris flow disaster at Kedarnath, June 2013: hydrometeorological triggering and topographic predisposition. Landslides 13(6):1479–1491

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ancey C (2001) Debris flows and related phenomena. In: Geomorphological fluid mechanics. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 528–547

    Google Scholar 

  • Arattano M, Marchi L (2008) Systems and sensors for debris-flow monitoring and warning. Sensors 8(4):2436–2452

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barnard PL, Owen LA, Sharma MC, Finkel RC (2001) Natural and human-induced landsliding in the Garhwal Himalaya of northern India. Geomorphology 40(1–2):21–35

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bera S, Melo R, Guru B (2021) Assessment of exposed elements in a changing built environment by using an integrated model of debris flow initiation and runout (Kalimpong region, Himalaya). Bull Eng Geol Env 80(9):7131–7152

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berti M, Genevois R, Simoni A, Tecca PR (1999) Field observations of a debris flow event in the Dolomites. Geomorphology 29(3–4):265–274

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bugnion L, McArdell BW, Bartelt P, Wendeler C (2012) Measurements of hillslope debris flow impact pressure on obstacles. Landslides 9(2):179–187

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calligaris C, Zini L (2012) Debris flow phenomena: a short overview. In: Earth Sciences. INTECH, Croatia, pp 71–90

    Google Scholar 

  • Cannon SH, Savage WZ (1988) A mass-change model for the estimation of debris-flow runout. J Geol 96(2):221–227

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chattoraj SL, Ray PC (2015) Simulation and modeling of debris flows using satellite derived data: a case study from Kedarnath Area. Int J Geomat Geosci 6(2):1498

    Google Scholar 

  • Chattoraj SL, Pardeshi S, Gupta V, Ketholia Y (2018) 3-Dimensional modeling of 2014-malin landslide, Maharashtra using satellite-derived data: a quantitative approach to numerical simulation technique. In: Natural hazards and earth system sciences discussions, pp 1–19

    Google Scholar 

  • Chattoraj SL, Ray PC, Kannaujiya S (2019) Simulation outputs of major debris flows in Garhwal Himalaya: a geotechnical modeling approach for hazard mitigation. In: Remote sensing of northwest Himalayan ecosystems. Springer, Singapore, pp 37–56

    Google Scholar 

  • Chaturvedi P, Jaiswal B, Sharma S, Tyagi N (2014). Instrumentation based dynamics study of Tangni landslide near Chamoli, Uttrakhand. Int J Res Adv Technol 2(10)

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen H, Lee CF (2004) Geohazards of slope mass movement and its prevention in Hong Kong. Eng Geol 76(1–2):3–25

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen J, Lee CF (2007). Landslide mobility analysis using Madflow. In: Proc. the 2007 international forum on landslide disaster management, vol 2, pp 857–874

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa JE (1984) Physical geomorphology of debris flows. In: Developments and applications of geomorphology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 268–317

    Google Scholar 

  • Cruden DM, Varnes DJ (1996) Chapter 3: Landslide types and processes. In: Turner AK, Schuster RL (eds) Landslides investigation and mitigation. Transportation research board, US National Research Council. Special Report 247, Washington, DC, pp 36–75

    Google Scholar 

  • Dai FC, Lee CF, Ngai YY (2002) Landslide risk assessment and management: an overview. Eng Geol 64(1):65–87

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Das S, Kar NS, Bandyopadhyay S (2015) Glacial lake outburst flood at Kedarnath, Indian Himalaya: a study using digital elevation models and satellite images. Nat Hazards 77(2):769–786

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dash RK, Kanungo DP, Malet JP (2021) Runout modelling and hazard assessment of Tangni debris flow in Garhwal Himalayas India. Environ Earth Sci 80(9):1–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dash RK, Falae PO, Kanungo DP (2022) Debris flow susceptibility zonation using statistical models in parts of Northwest Indian Himalayas—implementation, validation, and comparative evaluation. Nat Hazards 111(2):2011–2058

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davies TRH (1986) Large debris flows: a macro-viscous phenomenon. Acta Mech 63(1):161–178

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davies TR (1990) Debris-flow surges—experimental simulation. J Hydrol (New Zealand) 29:18–46

    Google Scholar 

  • De Haas T, Braat L, Leuven JR, Lokhorst IR, Kleinhans MG (2015) Effects of debris flow composition on runout, depositional mechanisms, and deposit morphology in laboratory experiments. J Geophys Res Earth Surf 120(9):1949–1972

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghosh C, Parkash S (2010) Cloud-burst-induced debris flows on vulnerable establishments at Leh. Indian Landslides 3(2):1–6

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghosh GK, Ghosh K, De SK, Rawat MS, Joshi V, Ayala IA (2012) An inventory of recent (18th September 2011) earthquake triggered landslides in the Sikkim Himalaya. J Geo-Environ Obs 1:1–94

    Google Scholar 

  • Gupta P, Khanna A, Majumdar S (2012) Disaster management in flash floods in Leh (Ladakh): a case study. Indian J Community Med 37(3):185–190

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hao L, Rajaneesh A, Van Westen C, Sajinkumar KS, Martha TR, Jaiswal P, McAdoo BG (2020) Constructing a complete landslide inventory dataset for the 2018 monsoon disaster in Kerala, India, for land use change analysis. Earth Syst Sci Data 12(4):2899–2918

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hungr O, Evans SG, Hutchinson IN (2001) A review of the classification of landslides of the flow type. Environ Eng Geosci 7(3):221–238

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hürlimann M, Rickenmann D, Medina V, Bateman A (2008) Evaluation of approaches to calculate debris-flow parameters for hazard assessment. Eng Geol 102(3–4):152–163

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hürlimann M, McArdell BW, Rickli C (2015) Field and laboratory analysis of the runout characteristics of hillslope debris flows in Switzerland. Geomorphology 232:20–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson JN (1968) Mass movement. In: Fairbridge RW (ed) Encyclopedia of geomorphology. Reinhold Publishers, New York, pp 688–695

    Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson JN (1986) A sliding–consolidation model for flow slides. Can Geotech J 23(2):115–126

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutter K, Svendsen B, Rickenmann D (1994) Debris flow modeling: a review. Contin Mech Thermodyn 8(1):1–35

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iverson RM (1997) The physics of debris flows. Rev Geophys 35(3):245–296

    Google Scholar 

  • Iverson RM (2015) Scaling and design of landslide and debris-flow experiments. Geomorphology 244:9–20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iverson RM, Reid ME, LaHusen RG (1997) Debris-flow mobilization from landslides. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 25(1):85–138

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jain N, Martha TR, Khanna K, Roy P, Kumar KV (2021) Major landslides in Kerala, India, during 2018–2020 period: an analysis using rainfall data and debris flow model. Landslides 18(11):3629–3645

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jakob M (2005) A size classification for debris flows. Eng Geol 79(3–4):151–161

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joshi V, Kumar K (2006) Extreme rainfall events and associated natural hazards in Alaknanda valley Indian Himalayan Region. J Mt Sci 3(3):228–236

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Juyal N (2010) Cloud burst-triggered debris flows around Leh. Curr Sci 99(9):1166–1167

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaitna R, Rickenmann D, Schatzmann M (2007) Experimental study on rheologic behaviour of debris flow material. Acta Geotech 2(2):71–85

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kanungo DP (2019). Ground based real time monitoring system using wireless instrumentation for landslide prediction. In Landslides: theory, practice and modelling. Springer, Cham, pp 105–120

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanungo DP, Singh R, Dash RK (2020) Field observations and lessons learnt from the 2018 landslide disasters in Idukki District, Kerala India. Curr Sci 119(11):1797–1806

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keefer DK (1984) Landslides caused by earthquakes. Geol Soc Am Bull 95:406–421

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khanduri S (2018) Landslide distribution and damages during 2013 deluge: a case study of Chamoli District Uttarakhand. J Geogr Nat Disast 8(226):2167–2587

    Google Scholar 

  • Kumar A, Bhambri R, Tiwari SK, Verma A, Gupta AK, Kawishwar P (2019) Evolution of debris flow and moraine failure in the Gangotri Glacier region, Garhwal Himalaya: hydro-geomorphological aspects. Geomorphology 333:152–166

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martha TR, Govindharaj KB, Kumar KV (2015a) Damage and geological assessment of the 18 September 2011 Mw 6.9 earthquake in Sikkim, India using very high resolution satellite data. Geosci Front 6(6):793–805

    Google Scholar 

  • Martha TR, Roy P, Govindharaj KB, Kumar KV, Diwakar PG, Dadhwal VK (2015b) Landslides triggered by the June 2013 extreme rainfall event in parts of Uttarakhand state India. Landslides 12(1):135–146

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martha TR, Roy P, Khanna K, Mrinalni K, Vinod Kumar K (2019) Landslides mapped using satellite data in the Western Ghats of India after excess rainfall during August 2018. Curr Sci 117(5):804–812

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCoy SW, Kean JW, Coe JA, Staley DM, Wasklewicz TA, Tucker GE (2010) Evolution of a natural debris flow: in situ measurements of flow dynamics, video imagery, and terrestrial laser scanning. Geology 38(8):735–738

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NDMA (2019) National landslide risk management strategy. A publication of the National Disaster Management Authority Government of India, New Delhi

    Google Scholar 

  • Negi HS, Kumar A, Rao NN, Thakur NK, Shekhar MS (2020) Susceptibility assessment of rainfall induced debris flow zones in Ladakh-Nubra region Indian Himalaya. J Earth Syst Sci 129(1):1–20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nettleton IM, Martin S, Hencher S, Moore R (2005). Debris flow types and mechanisms. In: Scottish road netw landslides study, pp 1–119

    Google Scholar 

  • Ochiai H et al (2004) A fluidized landslide on a natural slope by artificial rainfall. Landslides 1(3):211–219

    Google Scholar 

  • Ochiai H, Sammori T, Okada Y (2007) Landslide experiments on artificial and natural slopes. Progress in landslide science. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 209–226

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Parkash S (2013) Earthquake related landslides in the Indian Himalaya: experiences from the past and implications for the future. Landslide science and practice. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 327–334

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Pirulli M (2010) On the use of the calibration-based approach for debris-flow forward-analyses. Nat Hazard 10(5):1009–1019

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pradhan SP, Panda SD, Roul AR, Thakur M (2019) Insights into the recent Kotropi landslide of August 2017, India: a geological investigation and slope stability analysis. Landslides 16(8):1529–1537

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramesh MV (2009) Real-time wireless sensor network for landslide detection. In: 2009 third international conference on sensor technologies and applications. IEEE, pp 405–409

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramesh MV, Vasudevan N (2012) The deployment of deep-earth sensor probes for landslide detection. Landslides 9(4):457–474

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rautela P (2018) Lessons learnt from June 16/17, 2013 disaster of Uttarakhand, India. In: Science and technology in disaster risk reduction in Asia. Academic Press, pp 273–300

    Google Scholar 

  • Ray PC, Chattoraj SL, Bisht MPS, Kannaujiya S, Pandey K, Goswami A (2016) Kedarnath disaster 2013: causes and consequences using remote sensing inputs. Nat Hazards 81(1):227–243

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rickenmann D (2005) Runout prediction methods. In: Debris-flow hazards and related phenomena. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 305–324

    Google Scholar 

  • Saini P, Gangwar M (2018) Reactivation of minor scars to major landslides–a satellite-based analysis of Kotropi landslide (13 August 2017) in Himachal Pradesh India. Curr Sci 115(3):395–398

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sajwan A, Sengupta A (2021) Numerical modeling of debris flow during a rainfall induced landslide at Malin in India. In: Geo-extreme, pp 129–138

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarkar S, Kanungo DP, Sharma S (2015) Landslide hazard assessment in the upper Alaknanda valley of Indian Himalayas. Geomat Nat Hazards Risk 6(4):308–325

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sassa K (1989) Geotechnical model for the motion of landslides (Special lecture). In: Proc. 5th inter. symp. on landslide, vol 1, pp 37–56

    Google Scholar 

  • Sati VP (2007) Environmental impacts of debris flows-a case study of the two debris-flow zones in the Garhwal Himalaya. In: Chen and Maor (eds) Debris-flow hazards mitigation: mechanics, prediction, and assessment, pp 715–723

    Google Scholar 

  • Sati SP, Gahalaut VK (2013) The fury of the floods in the north-west Himalayan region: the Kedarnath tragedy. Geomat Nat Hazards Risk 4(3):193–201

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharma P, Rawat S, Gupta AK (2019) Study and remedy of Kotropi landslide in Himachal Pradesh India. Indian Geotech J 49(6):603–619

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharpe CFS (1938) Landslides and related phenomena. Columbia University Press, NY, p 1370

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh H, Som SK (2016) Earthquake triggered landslide–Indian scenario. J Geol Soc India 87(1):105–111

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singh R, Shekhar M, Pandey VK, Kumar R, Sharma RK (2018) Causes and geomorphological effects of large debris flows in the lower valley areas of the Meru and Gangotri glaciers, Bhagirathi basin, Garhwal Himalaya (India). Remote Sens Lett 9(8):809–818

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sosio R, Crosta GB, Frattini P (2007) Field observations, rheological testing and numerical modelling of a debris-flow event. Earth Surf Proc Land 32(2):290–306

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stini J (1910) Die Muren. Verlag der Wagner’shen Universitätsbuchhandlung, Innsbruck (Debris flows, English translation by M. Jakob and N. Skermer, 1997, 1910, EBA Engineering Consultants, Vancouver, Canada, p 106)

    Google Scholar 

  • Sujatha ER (2020) A spatial model for the assessment of debris flow susceptibility along the Kodaikkanal-Palani traffic corridor. Front Earth Sci 14:326–343

    Google Scholar 

  • Sujatha ER, Sridhar V (2017) Mapping debris flow susceptibility using analytical network process in Kodaikkanal Hills, Tamil Nadu (India). J Earth Syst Sci 126(8):1–18

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thakur V et al (2021) Early warning of water-triggered landslides. In: Indian geotechnical conference 2019. Springer, Singapore, pp 139–150

    Google Scholar 

  • Turnbull B, Bowman ET, McElwaine JN (2015) Debris flows: experiments and modelling. C R Phys 16(1):86–96

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Varnes DJ (1958) Landslide types and processes. In: Eckel EB (ed) Landslides and engineering practice, special report 28. Highway research board. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, pp 20–47

    Google Scholar 

  • Varnes DJ (1978) Slope movement types and processes. In: Schuster RL, Krizek RJ (eds) Landslides, analysis and control, special report 176: transportation research board. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, pp 11–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vishnu CL, Sajinkumar KS, Oommen T, Man RA, Thrivikramji KP, Rani VR, Keerthy S (2018) Satellite-based assessment of the August 2018 flood in parts of Kerala, India. Geomat Nat Hazards Risk 10(1):758–767

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to Director, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, Uttarakhand (India) for granting permission to publish this paper.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Geo-Hazard Risk Reduction Group, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, 247667, Uttarakhand, India

    Rajesh Kumar Dash & Debi Prasanna Kanungo

  2. Geotechnical Engineering Group, CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, 247667, Uttarakhand, India

    Manojit Samanta

  3. Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India

    Manojit Samanta & Debi Prasanna Kanungo

Authors
  1. Rajesh Kumar Dash
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Manojit Samanta
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Debi Prasanna Kanungo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rajesh Kumar Dash .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Coastal Disaster Management, School of Physical, Chemical and Applied Sciences, Pondicherry University, Port Blair, India

    P. Thambidurai

  2. Indian Institute of Technology Patna, Bihta, Bihar, India

    T. N. Singh

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Dash, R.K., Samanta, M., Kanungo, D.P. (2023). Debris Flow Hazard in India: Current Status, Research Trends, and Emerging Challenges. In: Thambidurai, P., Singh, T.N. (eds) Landslides: Detection, Prediction and Monitoring. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23859-8_10

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation