Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Enteroviruses and Parechoviruses: Echoviruses, Coxsackieviruses, and Others

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Viral Infections of Humans

  • 12 Accesses

Abstract

Enteroviruses and parechoviruses (family Picornaviridae) are ubiquitous human pathogens, causing a wide range of clinical presentations. These include asymptomatic infection, mild illness such as common colds and non-specific febrile illness, exanthems, hand, foot, and mouth disease, herpangina, conjunctivitis, and severe illness such as aseptic meningitis, encephalitis, neonatal sepsis, myocarditis, acute flaccid limb weakness or paralysis without spinal cord involvement, and acute flaccid myelitis. While over 100 enterovirus types have been identified in humans and animals, traditionally identified by antigenic tests but more recently according to genome sequence criteria, many more are being discovered and others are being reclassified. In this chapter, the focus will be on non-polio enteroviruses and parechoviruses that affect humans only. Parechoviruses were formerly classified as enteroviruses but now constitute their own genus; however, their spectrum of clinical disease manifestations is similar to that of enteroviruses. Both enteroviruses and parechoviruses are transmitted primarily through fecal-oral and respiratory routes and have a distinct seasonality in temperate climates.

The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abedi GR, Watson JT, Pham H, Nix WA, Oberste MS, Gerber SI. Enterovirus and human parechovirus surveillance – United States, 2009-2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64(34):940–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abedi GR, Watson JT, Nix WA, Oberste MS, Gerber SI. Enterovirus and parechovirus surveillance in US 2014–2016. MMWR. 2018;67(18):515–8.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Abedi GR, Messacar K, Luong W, Nix WA, Rogers S, Queen K, Tong S, Oberste MS, Watt J, Rothrock G, Dominguez S, Gerber SI, Watson JT. Picornavirus etiology of acute infections among hospitalized infants. J Clin Virol. 2019;116:39–43.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Agol VI. Molecular mechanisms of poliovirus variation and evolution. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2006;299:211–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alexander JP Jr, Gary HE Jr, Pallansch MA. Duration of poliovirus excretion and its implications for acute flaccid paralysis surveillance: a review of the literature. J Infect Dis. 1997;175(Suppl 1):S176–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Sunaidi M, Williams CH, Hughes PJ, Schnurr DP, Stanway G. Analysis of a new human parechovirus allows the definition of parechovirus types and the identification of RNA structural domains. J Virol. 2007;81:1013–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Archimbaud C, Bailly JL, Chambon M, Tournilhac O, Travade P, Peigue-Lafeuille H. Molecular evidence of persistent echovirus 13 meningoencephalitis in a patient with relapsed lymphoma after an outbreak of meningitis in 2000. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41(10):4605–10.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Baumgarte S, de Souza K, Luna L, Grywna K, Panning M, Drexler JF, Karsten C, Huppertz HI, Drosten C. Prevalence, types, and RNA concentrations of human parechoviruses in patients with acute enteritis, including a sixth parechovirus type. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46:242–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bearden D, Collett M, Quan PL, Costa-Carvalho BT, Sullivan KE. Enteroviruses in X-linked agammaglobulinemia: update on epidemiology and therapy. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2016;4(6):1059–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Belgami H, Miles SJ, Sayyad L, Wong K, Harrington C, Gerloff N, Salmond AD, Guntapong R, Tacharoenmuang R, Ayutthaya AIN, Apostol LNG, Valencia MAD, Burns CC, Benito G, Vega E. Café: a sensitive, low-cost filtration method for detecting polioviruses and other enteroviruses in residual waters. Front Environ Sci. 2022;10:1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell EJ, Grist NR. ECHO viruses, carditis, and acute pleurodynia. Am Heart J. 1971;82(1):133–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bell EJ, McCartney RA, Basquill D, Chaudhuri AK. Mu-antibody capture ELISA for the rapid diagnosis of enterovirus infections in patients with aseptic meningitis. J Med Virol. 1986;19(3):213–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benschop KSM, Schinkel J, Luken ME, van den Broek PJM, Beersma MFC, Menelik N, van Eijk HWM, Zaaijer HL, VandenBrouke-Grauls CMJE, Beld MGHM, Wolthers KC. Fourth human parechovirus serotype. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006a;12:1572–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Benschop KSM, Schinkel J, Minnaar RP, Pajkrt D, Spanjerberg L, Kraakman HC, Berkhout B, Zaaijer HL, Beld MGHM, Wolthers KC. Human parechovirus infections in Dutch children and the association between serotype and disease severity. Clin Infect Dis. 2006b;42:204–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benschop K, Molenkamp R, van der Ham A, Wolthers K, Beld M. Rapid detection of human parechoviruses in clinical samples by real-time PCR. J Clin Virol. 2008a;41(2):69–74.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benschop K, Thomas X, Serpenti C, Molenkamp R, Wolthers KC. High prevalence of human parechovirus genotypes in the Amsterdam region and the identification of specific HPeV variants by direct genotyping of stool samples. J Clin Microbiol. 2008b;46:3965–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Berg G, editor. Transmission of viruses by the water route. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1967.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biggs HM, McNeal M, Nix WA, Kercsmar C, Curns AT, Connelly B, Rice M, Chern SW, Prill MM, Back N, Oberste MS, Gerber SI, Staat MA. Enterovirus D68 infection among children with medically attended acute respiratory illness, Cincinnati, Ohio, July-October 2014. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;65(2):315–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bloom HH, Mack WN, Krueger BJ, Mallmann WL. Identification of enteroviruses in sewage. J Infect Dis. 1959;105:61–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bodian D, Morgan IM, Howe HA. Differentiation of types of poliomyelitis viruses. III. The grouping of fourteen strains into three basic immunological types. Am J Hyg. 1949;49:234–45.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boivin G, Abed Y, Boucher FD. Human parechovirus 3 and neonatal infections. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005;11(1):103–5.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Boman J, Nilsson B, Juto P. Serum IgA, IgG, and IgM responses to different enteroviruses as measured by a coxsackie B5-based indirect ELISA. J Med Virol. 1992;38(1):32–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bottcher S, Diedrich S, Keeren K, The Laboratory Network For Enterovirus Diagnostic La, N. E. D. Increased detection of enterovirus A71 infections, Germany, 2019. Euro Surveill. 2019;24(39):1900556.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Britton PN, Jones CA, Macartney K, Cheng AC. Parechovirus: an important emerging infection in young infants. Med J Aust. 2018;208(8):365–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Broor S, Kishore J, Dogra V, Satapathy G, Seth P. An epidemic of acute haemorrhagic conjunctivitis caused by coxsackie A24 variant. Indian J Med Res. 1992;95:253–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cabrerizo M, Echevarria JE, Otero A, Lucas P, Trallero G. Molecular characterization of a coxsackievirus A24 variant that caused an outbreak of acute haemorrhagic conjunctivitis in Spain, 2004. J Clin Virol. 2008;43(3):323–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caro V, Guillot S, Delpeyroux F, Crainic R. Molecular strategy for ‘serotyping’ of human enteroviruses. J Gen Virol. 2001;82:79–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Casas I, Palacios GF, Trallero G, Cisterna D, Freire MC, Tenorio A. Molecular characterization of human enteroviruses in clinical samples: comparison between VP2, VP1, and RNA polymerase regions using RT nested PCR assays and direct sequencing of products. J Med Virol. 2001;65:138–48.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • CDC. Acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis caused by coxsackie A24 variant – Puerto Rico. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1988;37(8):123-4–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • CDC. Aseptic meningitis outbreak associated with echovirus 9 among recreational vehicle campers – Connecticut, 2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2004;53(31):710–3.

    Google Scholar 

  • CDC. Acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis outbreaks caused by coxsackievirus A24v – Uganda and Southern Sudan, 2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010a;59:1024.

    Google Scholar 

  • CDC. Nonpolio enterovirus and human parechovirus surveillance – United States, 2006–2008. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010b;59:1577–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • CDC. Notes from the field: severe hand, foot, and mouth disease associated with coxsackievirus A6 – Alabama, Connecticut, California, and Nevada, November 2011-February 2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2012;61(12):213–4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chan LG, Parashar UD, Lye MS, Ong FGL, Zaki SR, Alexander JP, Ho KK, Han LL, Pallansch MA, Abu Bakar S, Jegathesan M, Anderson LJ. Deaths of children during an outbreak of hand, foot, and mouth disease in Sarawak, Malaysia: clinical and pathoilogical characteristics of the disease. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;31:678–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chang WK, Liu KC, Foo TC, Lam MW, Chan CF. Acute haemorrhagic conjunctivitis in Hong Kong 1971–1975. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 1977;8(1):1–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chatterjee S, Quarcoopome CO, Apenteng A. Unusual type of epidemic conjunctivitis in Ghana. Br J Ophthalmol. 1970;54(9):628–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chiu ML, Luo ST, Chen YY, Chung WY, Duong V, Dussart P, Chan YF, Perera D, Ooi MH, Thao NTT, Truong HK, Lee MS. Establishment of Asia-Pacific network for enterovirus surveillance. Vaccine. 2020;38(1):1–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Choo YJ, Kim SJ. Detection of human adenoviruses and enteroviruses in Korean oysters using cell culture, integrated cell culture-PCR, and direct PCR. J Microbiol. 2006;44(2):162–70.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke NA, Kabler PW. Human enteric viruses in sewage. Health Lab Sci. 1964;1:44–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clements GB, Galbraith DN, Taylor KW. Coxsackie B virus infection and onset of childhood diabetes. Lancet. 1995;346(8969):221–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coller BA, Chapman NM, Beck MA, Pallansch MA, Gauntt CJ, Tracy SM. Echovirus 22 is an atypical enterovirus. J Virol. 1990;64(6):2692–701.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Committee on Enteroviruses. Classification of human enteroviruses. Virology. 1962;16:501–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Committee on the ECHO viruses. Enteric cytopathogenic human orphan (ECHO) viruses. Science. 1955;122:1187–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Committee on the Enteroviruses. The enteroviruses. Am J Public Health. 1957;47:1556–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Corless CE, Guiver M, Borrow R, Edwards-Jones V, Fox AJ, Kaczmarshi EB, Mutton KJ. Development an devaluation of a ‘real-time’ RT-PCR for the detection of enterovirus and parechovirus in CSF and throat swab samples. J Med Virol. 2002;67:555–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coyne CB. Chapter 3 enteroviruses, polioviruses, coxsackieviruses, echoviruses, and newer enteroviruses. Fields virology 7th ed. Wolters Kluwer; 2021.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dalldorf G, Melnick JL. Coxsackieviruses. In: Horsfall FLJ, Tamm I, editors. Viral and Rickettsial infections of man. 4th ed. Philidelphia: J. B. Lippincott; 1965. p. 474–512.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dalldorf G, Sickles GM. An unidentified, filtrible agent isolated from the feces of children with paralysis. Science. 1948;108:61–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davia JL, Bel PH, Ninet VZ, Bracho MA, Gonzalez-Candelas F, Salazar A, Gobernado M, Bosch IF. Onychomadesis outbreak in Valencia, Spain associated with hand, foot, and mouth disease caused by enteroviruses. Pediatr Dermatol. 2011;28(1):1–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Day C, Cumming H, Walker J. Enterovirus-specific IgM in the diagnosis of meningitis. J Infect. 1989;19(3):219–28.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Crom SC, Rossen JW, van Furth AM, Obihara CC. Enterovirus and parechovirus infection in children: a brief overview. Eur J Pediatr. 2016;175(8):1023–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • de Ory F, Avellon A, Echevarria JE, Sanchez-Seco MP, Trallero G, Cabrerizo M, Casas I, Pozo F, Fedele G, Vicente D, Pena MJ, Moreno A, Niubo J, Rabella N, Rubio G, Perez-Ruiz M, Rodriguez-Iglesias M, Gimeno C, Eiros JM, Melon S, Blasco M, Lopez-Miragaya I, Varela E, Martinez-Sapina A, Rodriguez G, Marcos MA, Gegundez MI, Cilla G, Gabilondo I, Navarro JM, Torres J, Aznar C, Castellanos A, Guisasola ME, Negredo AI, Tenorio A, Vazquez-Moron S. Viral infections of the central nervous system in Spain: a prospective study. J Med Virol. 2013;85(3):554–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Palma AM, Vliegen I, De Clercq E, Neyts J. Selective inhibitors of picornavirus replication. Med Res Rev. 2008;28:823–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Vries M, Pyrc K, Berkhout R, Vermeulen-Oost W, Dijkman R, Jebbink MF, Bruisten S, Berkhout B, van der Hoek L. Human parechovirus type 1, 3, 4, 5, and 6 detection in picornavirus cultures. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46(2):759–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dorries R, ter Meulen V. Specificity of IgM antibodies in acute human coxsackievirus B infections, analysed by indirect solid phase enzyme immunoassay and immunoblot technique. J Gen Virol. 1983;64(Pt 1):159–67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Drexler JF, Grywna K, Stöcker A, Silva Almeida P, Medrado Ribeiro TC, Eschbach-Bludau M, Petersen N, da Costa Ribeiro H Jr, Drosten C. A novel human parechovirus from Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis. 2009;15:310–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dupuis M, Hull R, Wang H, Nattanmai S, Glasheen B, Fusco H, Dzigua L, Markey K, Tavakoli NP. Molecular detection of viral causes of encephalitis and meningitis in New York state. J Med Virol. 2011;83(12):2172–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dussart P, Cartet G, Huguet P, Leveque N, Hajjar C, Morvan J, Vanderkerckhove J, Ferret K, Lina B, Chomel JJ, Norder H. Outbreak of acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis in French Guiana and West Indies caused by coxsackievirus A24 variant: phylogenetic analysis reveals Asian import. J Med Virol. 2005;75(4):559–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehrenfeld E, Domingo E, Roos R, editors. The picornaviruses. Washington, DC: ASM Press; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  • Enders JF, Weller TH, Robbins FC. Cultivation of the Lansing strain of poliomyelitis virus in cultures of various human embryonic tissues. Science. 1949;109:85–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flett K, Youngster I, Huang J, McAdam A, Sandora TJ, Rennick M, Smole S, Rogers SL, Nix WA, Oberste MS, Gellis S, Ahmed AA. Hand, foot, and mouth disease caused by coxsackievirus a6. Emerg Infect Dis. 2012;18(10):1702–4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fonseca MC, Sarmiento L, Resik S, Pereda N, Rodriguez H, Kouri V, Martinez PA, Pinon A, Limonta D, Mas P, Hung LH. Isolation of coxsackievirus A24 variant from patients with hemorrhagic conjunctivitis in Cuba, 2008–2009. J Clin Virol. 2012;53(1):77–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fowlkes AL, Honarmand S, Glaser C, Yagi S, Schnurr D, Oberste MS, Anderson L, Pallansch MA, Khetsuriani N. Enterovirus-associated encephalitis in the California encephalitis project, 1998–2005. J Infect Dis. 2008;198(11):1685–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freund MW, Kleinveld G, Krediet TG, van Loon AM, Verboon-Maciolek MA. Prognosis for neonates with enterovirus myocarditis. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2010;95(3):F206–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frisk G, Nilsson E, Ehrnst A, Diderholm H. Enterovirus IgM detection: specificity of mu-antibody-capture radioimmunoassays using virions and procapsids of Coxsackie B virus. J Virol Methods. 1989;24(1–2):191–202.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fujimoto T, Iizuka S, Enomoto M, Abe K, Yamashita K, Hanaoka N, Okabe N, Yoshida H, Yasui Y, Kobayashi M, Fujii Y, Tanaka H, Yamamoto M, Shimizu H. Hand, foot, and mouth disease caused by coxsackievirus A6, Japan, 2011. Emerg Infect Dis. 2012;18(2):337–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gelfand HM, Fox JP, Leblanc DR. The enteric viral flora of a population of normal children in southern Louisiana. Am J Trop Med. 1957;6:521–31.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ghazi F, Hughes PJ, Hyypia T, Stanway G. Molecular analysis of human parechovirus type 2 (formerly echovirus 23). J Gen Virol. 1998;79(Pt 11):2641–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Glimaker M, Samuelson A, Magnius L, Ehrnst A, Olcen P, Forsgren M. Early diagnosis of enteroviral meningitis by detection of specific IgM antibodies with a solid-phase reverse immunosorbent test (SPRIST) and mu-capture EIA. J Med Virol. 1992;36(3):193–201.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldwater PN. Immunoglobulin M capture immunoassay in investigation of coxsackievirus B5 and B6 outbreaks in South Australia. J Clin Microbiol. 1995;33(6):1628–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gopalkrishna V, Patil PR, Patil GP, Chitambar SD. Circulation of multiple enterovirus serotypes causing hand, foot and mouth disease in India. J Med Microbiol. 2012;61(Pt 3):420–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grinstein S, Melnick JL, Wallis C. Virus isolations from sewage and from a stream receiving effluents of sewage treatment plants. Bull World Health Organ. 1970;42(2):291–6.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hammon WM, Ludwig EH, Sather G, Yohn DS. Comparative studies on patterns of family infections with polioviruses and ECHO virus type 1 on an American military base in The Philippines. Am J Public Health. 1957;47:802–11.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison CJ, Weldon WC, Pahud BA, Jackson MA, Oberste MS, Selvarangan R. Neutralizing antibody against enterovirus D68 in children and adults before 2014 outbreak, Kansas City, Missouri, USA. Emerg Infect Dis. 2019;25(3):585–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Harvala H, Robertson I, Chieochansin T, McWilliam Leitch EC, Templeton K, Simmonds P. Specific association of human parechovirus type 3 with sepsis and fever in young infants, as identified by direct typing of cerebrospinal fluid samples. J Infect Dis. 2009;199(12):1753–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harvala H, Sharp CP, Ngole EM, Delaporte E, Peeters M, Simmonds P. Detection and genetic characterization of enteroviruses circulating among wild populations of chimpanzees in Cameroon: relationship with human and simian enteroviruses. J Virol. 2011;85(9):4480–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Harvala H, Broberg E, Benschop K, Berginc N, Ladhani S, Susi P, Christiansen C, McKenna J, Allen D, Makiello P, McAllister G, Carmen M, Zakikhany K, Dyrdak R, Nielsen X, Madsen T, Paul J, Moore C, von Eije K, Piralla A, Carlier M, Vanoverschelde L, Poelman R, Anton A, Lopez-Labrador FX, Pellegrinelli L, Keeren K, Maier M, Cassidy H, Derdas S, Savolainen-Kopra C, Diedrich S, Nordbo S, Buesa J, Bailly JL, Baldanti F, MacAdam A, Mirand A, Dudman S, Schuffenecker I, Kadambari S, Neyts J, Griffiths MJ, Richter J, Margaretto C, Govind S, Morley U, Adams O, Krokstad S, Dean J, Pons-Salort M, Prochazka B, Cabrerizo M, Majumdar M, Nebbia G, Wiewel M, Cottrell S, Coyle P, Martin J, Moore C, Midgley S, Horby P, Wolthers K, Simmonds P, Niesters H, Fischer TK. Recommendations for enterovirus diagnostics and characterisation within and beyond Europe. J Clin Virol. 2018;101:11–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hawley HB, Morin DP, Geraghty ME, Tomkow J, Phillips CA. Coxsackievirus B epidemic at a Boy’s summer camp. Isolation of virus from swimming water. J Am Med Assoc. 1973;226(1):33–6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hayakawa T, Nakano Y, Hayakawa K, Yoshimatu H, Hori Y, Yamanishi K, Yamanishi H, Ota T, Fujimoto T. Fulminant type 1 diabetes mellitus associated with Coxsackievirus type B1 infection during pregnancy: a case report. J Med Case Rep. 2019;13(1):186.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Helfand RF, Gary HE Jr, Freeman CY, Anderson LJ, Pallansch MA. Serologic evidence of an association between enteroviruses and the onset of type 1 diabetes mellitus. Pittsburgh diabetes research group. J Infect Dis. 1995;172(5):1206–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hixon AM, Yu G, Leser JS, Yagi S, Clarke P, Chiu CY, Tyler KL. A mouse model of paralytic myelitis caused by enterovirus D68. PLoS Pathog. 2017;13(2):e1006199.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hodes DS, Espinoza DV. Temperature sensitivity of isolates of echovirus type 11 causing chronic meningoencephalitis in an agammaglobulinemic patient. J Infect Dis. 1981;144(4):377.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hodgson J, Bendig J, Keeling P, Booth JC. Comparison of two immunoassay procedures for detecting enterovirus IgM. J Med Virol. 1995;47(1):29–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Honig EI, Melnick JL, Isacson P, Parr R, Myers IL, Walton M. An endemiological study of enteric virus infections: poliomyelitis, coxsackie, and orphan (ECHO) viruses isolated from normal children in two socioeconomic groups. J Exp Med. 1956;103(2):247–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hopkins JH. Bornholm disease. Br Med J. 1950;1(4664):1230–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hsu BM, Chen CH, Wan MT. Prevalence of enteroviruses in hot spring recreation areas of Taiwan. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 2008;52(2):253–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hu YL, Chang LY. Current status of enterovirus D68 worldwide and in Taiwan. Pediatr Neonatol. 2020;61(1):9–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huang WT, Lee PI, Chang LY, Kao CL, Huang LM, Lu CY, Chen JM, Lee CY. Epidemic pleurodynia caused by coxsackievirus B3 at a medical center in northern Taiwan. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2010;43(6):515–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huber S, Ramsingh AI. Coxsackievirus-induced pancreatitis. Viral Immunol. 2004;17(3):358–69.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huebner RJ, Cole RM, Beeman EA, Bell JA, Peers JH. Herpangina; etiological studies of a specific infectious disease. J Am Med Assoc. 1951;145(9):628–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hyypia T, Horsnell C, Maaronen M, Khan M, Kalkkinen N, Auvinen P, Kinnunen L, Stanway G. A distinct picornavirus group identified by sequence analysis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992;89(18):8847–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ikeda T, Mizuta K, Abiko C, Aoki Y, Itagaki T, Katsushima F, Katsushima Y, Matsuzaki Y, Fuji N, Imamura T, Oshitani H, Noda M, Kimura H, Ahiko T. Acute respiratory infections due to enterovirus 68 in Yamagata, Japan between 2005 and 2010. Microbiol Immunol. 2012;56(2):139–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Imamura T, Fuji N, Suzuki A, Tamaki R, Saito M, Aniceto R, Galang H, Sombrero L, Lupisan S, Oshitani H. Enterovirus 68 among children with severe acute respiratory infection, The Philippines. Emerg Infect Dis. 2011;17(8):1430–5.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ito M, Yamashita T, Tsuzuki H, Takeda N, Sakae K. Isolation and identification of a novel human parechovirus. J Gen Virol. 2004;85:391–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobson LM, Redd JT, Schneider E, Lu X, Chern SW, Oberste MS, Erdman DD, Fischer GE, Armstrong GL, Kodani M, Montoya J, Magri JM, Cheek JE. Outbreak of lower respiratory tract illness associated with human enterovirus 68 among American Indian children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31(3):309–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jamison. Morphology of echovirus 22. J Virol. 1969;4(6):904–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jenista JA, Powell KR, Menegus MA. Epidemiology of neonatal enterovirus infection. J Pediatr. 1984;104(5):685–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jokela P, Joki-Korpela P, Maaronen M, Glumoff V, Hyypia T. Detection of human picornaviruses by multiplex reverse transcription-PCR and liquid hybridization. J Clin Microbiol. 2005;43(3):1239–45.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kamau E, Harvala H, Blomqvist S, Nguyen D, Horby P, Pebody R, Simmonds P. Increase in enterovirus D68 infections in young children, United Kingdom, 2006–2016. Emerg Infect Dis. 2019;25(6):1200–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Karelehto E, Koen G, Benschop K, van der Klis F, Pajkrt D, Wolthers K. Enterovirus D68 serosurvey: evidence for endemic circulation in The Netherlands, 2006 to 2016. Euro Surveill. 2019;24(35):1800671.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kee F, McElroy G, Stewart D, Coyle P, Watson J. A community outbreak of echovirus infection associated with an outdoor swimming pool. J Public Health Med. 1994;16(2):145–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly S, Winsser J, Winklestein W Jr. Poliomyelitis and other enteric viruses in sewage. Am J Public Health. 1957;47:72–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khan A, Sharif S, Shaukat S, Khan S, Zaidi S. An outbreak of acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis (AHC) caused by coxsackievirus A24 variant in Pakistan. Virus Res. 2008;137(1):150–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khetsuriani N, LaMonte-Fowlkes A, Oberste MS, Pallansch M. Enterovirus surveillance – United States, 1970–2005. MMWR. 2006a;55(SS-8):1–20.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khetsuriani N, LaMonte A, Oberste MS, Pallansch MA. Enterovirus surveillance – United States, 1970–2005. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep Surveill Summ. 2006b;55(SS-8):1–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kidd S, Lopez AS, Konopka-Anstadt JL, Nix WA, Routh JA, Oberste MS. Enterovirus D68-associated acute flaccid myelitis, United States, 2020. Emerg Infect Dis. 2020a;25(10):e201630.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kidd S, Lopez A, Nix WA, Anyalechi G, Itoh MI, Yee E, Oberste MS, Routh J. Vital signs clinical characteristics of patients with confirmed AFM in US 2018. MMWR. 2020b;69(31):1031–8.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • King AMQ, Lefkowitz EJ, Mushegian AR, Adams MJ, Dutilh BE, Gorbalenya AE, Harrach B, Harrison RL, Junglen S, Knowles NJ, Kropinski AM, Krupovic M, Kuhn JH, Nibert ML, Rubino L, Sabanadzovic S, Sanfacon H, Siddell SG, Simmonds P, Varsani A, Zerbini FM, Davison AJ. Changes to taxonomy and the international code of virus classification and nomenclature ratified by the international committee on taxonomy of viruses (2018). Arch Virol. 2018;163(9):2601–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knowles NJ, Hovi T, Hyypiä T, King AMQ, Lindberg AM, Pallansch MA, Palmenberg AC, Skern T, Stanway G, Yamashita T, Zell R. Picornaviridae. In: King AMQ, Adams MJ, Carstens EB, Lefkowitz EJ, editors. Virus taxonomy: classification and nomenclature of viruses: ninth report of the international committee on taxonomy of viruses. San Diego: Elsevier; 2011. p. 855–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kok TW, Pryor T, Payne L. Comparison of rhabdomyosarcoma, buffalo green monkey kidney epithelial, A549 (human lung epithelial) cells and human embryonic lung fibroblasts for isolation of enteroviruses from clinical samples. J Clin Virol. 1998;11(1):61–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kono R. Apollo 11 disease or acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis a pandemic of a new enterovirus infection of the eyes. Am J Epidemiol. 1975;101(5):383–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kono R, Sasagawa A, Ishii K, Sugiura S, Ochi M, Matsumiya H, Uchida H, Kameyama K, Kaneko M, Sakurai N. Pandemic of a new type of conjunctivitis. Lancet. 1972;1(7762):1191–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kramer R, Sabatier M, Wirth T, Pichon M, Lina B, Schuffenecker I, Josset L. Molecular diversity and biennial circulation of enterovirus D68: a systematic screening study in Lyon, France, 2010 to 2016. Euro Surveill. 2018;23(37):1700711.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kujawski SA, Midgley CM, Rha B, Lively JY, Nix WA, Curns AT, Payne DC, Englund JA, Boom JA, Williams JV, Weinberg GA, Staat MA, Selvarangan R, Halasa NB, Klein EJ, Sahni LC, Michaels MG, Shelley L, McNeal M, Harrison CJ, Stewart LS, Lopez AS, Routh JA, Patel M, Oberste MS, Watson JT, Gerber SI. Enterovirus D68-associated acute respiratory illness – new vaccine surveillance network, United States, July-October, 2017 and 2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68(12):277–80.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar A, Shukla D, Kumar R, Idris MZ, Misra UK, Dhole TN. An epidemic of encephalitis associated with human enterovirus B in Uttar Pradesh, India, 2008. J Clin Virol. 2011;51(2):142–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lamb GA, Chin TDY, Scarce LE. Isolations of enteric viruses from sewage and river water in a metropolitan area. Am J Hyg. 1964;80:320–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee LH, Phillips CA, South MA, Melnick JL, Yow MD. Enteric virus isolation in different cell cultures. Bull World Health Organ. 1965;32(5):657–63.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lerner AM, DeRocco AJ, Yang L, Robinson DA, Eisinger RW, Bushar ND, Nath A, Erbelding E. Unraveling the mysteries of acute flaccid myelitis: scientific opportunities and priorities for future research. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;72(11):2044–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li L, Victoria J, Kapoor A, Naeem A, Shaukat S, Sharif S, Alam MM, Zaidi SZ, Delwart E. Genomic characterization of a novel human parechovirus type. Emerg Infect Dis. 2009;15:288–91.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Li ML, Shih SR, Tolbert BS, Brewer G. Enterovirus A71 vaccines. Vaccines (Basel). 2021;9(3):199.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lim KA, Benyesh-Melnick M. Typing of viruses by combinations of antiserum pools. Application to typing of enteroviruses (coxsackie and ECHO). J Immunol. 1960;84:309–17.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lim KH, Yin-Murphy M. An epidemic of conjunctivitis in Singapore in 1970. Singap Med J. 1971;12(5):247–9.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lim KH, Yin-Murphy M. The aetiologic agents of epidemic conjunctivitis. Singap Med J. 1977;18(1):41–3.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lin TY, Kao HT, Hsieh SH, Huang YC, Chiu CH, Chou YH, Yang PH, Lin RI, Tsao KC, Hsu KH, Chang LY. Neonatal enterovirus infections: emphasis on risk factors of severe and fatal infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2003;22(10):889–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Livingston RA, Harrison CJ, Selvarangan R. Neutralizing enterovirus D68 antibodies in children after 2014 outbreak, Kansas City, Missouri, USA. Emerg Infect Dis. 2022;28(3):539–47.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lo SH, Huang YC, Huang CG, Tsao KC, Li WC, Hsieh YC, Chiu CH, Lin TY. Clinical and epidemiologic features of coxsackievirus A6 infection in children in northern Taiwan between 2004 and 2009. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2011;44(4):252–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lodder-Verschoor F, de Roda Husman AM, van den Berg HH, Stein A, van Pelt-Heerschap HM, van der Poel WH. Year-round screening of noncommercial and commercial oysters for the presence of human pathogenic viruses. J Food Prot. 2005;68(9):1853–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lopez A, Lee A, Guo A, Konopka-Anstadt JL, Nisler A, Rogers SL, Emery B, Nix WA, Oberste S, Routh J, Patel M. Vital signs: surveillance for acute flaccid myelitis – United States, 2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68(27):608–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lund E, Hedstrom CE, Strannegard O. A comparison between virus isolations from sewage and from fecal specimens from patients. Am J Epidemiol. 1966;84(2):282–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mahfoud F, Gartner B, Kindermann M, Ukena C, Gadomski K, Klingel K, Kandolf R, Bohm M, Kindermann I. Virus serology in patients with suspected myocarditis: utility or futility? Eur Heart J. 2011;32(7):897–903.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martino TA, Liu P, Sole MJ. Viral infection and the pathogenesis of dilated cardiomyopathy. Circ Res. 1994;74(2):182–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maus MV, Posencheg MA, Geddes K, Elkan M, Penaranda S, Oberste MS, Hodinka RL. Detection of echovirus 18 in human breast Milk. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46:1137–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McLaren N, Lopez A, Kidd S, Zhang J, Nix WA, Link-Gelles R, Lee A, Routh JA. Characteristics of patients with acute flaccid myelitis, United States, 2015–2018. Emerg Infect Dis. 2020;26(2):212–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McMinn P, Lindsay K, Perera D, Chan HM, Chan KP, Cardosa MJ. Phylogenetic analysis of enterovirus 71 strains isolated during linked epidemics in Malaysia, Singapore, and Western Australia. J Virol. 2001;75(16):7732–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mease PJ, Ochs HD, Corey L, Dragavon J, Wedgwood RJ. Echovirus encephalitis/myositis in X-linked agammaglobulinemia [letter]. N Engl J Med. 1985;313(12):758.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meijer A, van der Sanden S, Snijders BE, Jaramillo-Gutierrez G, Bont L, van der Ent CK, Overduin P, Jenny SL, Jusic E, van der Avoort HG, Smith GJ, Donker GA, Koopmans MP. Emergence and epidemic occurrence of enterovirus 68 respiratory infections in The Netherlands in 2010. Virology. 2012;423(1):49–57.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Melicosta ME, Dean J, Hagen K, Oppenheimer K, Porter C, Rybczynski S, Salorio C, Sadowsky C. Acute flaccid myelitis: rehabilitation challenges and outcomes in a pediatric cohort. J Pediatr Rehabil Med. 2019;12(3):245–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Melnick JL. Application of tissue culture methods to epidemiological studies of poliomyelitis. Am J Public Health. 1954;44:571–80.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Melnick JL. Advances in the study of the enteroviruses. Prog Med Virol. 1958;1:59–105.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Melnick JL. Echoviruses. In: Horsfall FLJ, Tamm I, editors. Viral and Rickettsial infections of man. 4th ed. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott; 1965. p. 513–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melnick JL. Reference materials in virology: the enterovirus example. In: Proceedings international conference on standardization of diagnostic materials. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control; 1974. p. 213–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melnick JL. Portraits of viruses: the picornaviruses. Intervirology. 1983;20:61–100.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Melnick JL. Enteroviruses. In: Rose NR, Macario EC, Fahey JL, Friedman H, Penn GM, editors. Manual of clinical laboratory immunology. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology; 1992. p. 631–3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melnick JL, Ã…gren K. Poliomyelitis and coxsackie viruses isolated from normal infants in Egypt. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1952;81:621–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Melnick JL, Ramos-Alvarez M, Black FL, Girardi AJ, Nagaki D. Poliomyelitis viruses in tissue culture. VII. Experiences with viral and serological diagnostic procedures. Yale J Biol Med. 1954;26(6):465–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melnick JL, Shaw EW, Curnen EC. 17186. A virus isolated from patients diagnosed as non-paralytic poliomyelitis or aseptic meningitis. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1949;71:344–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Melnick JL, Clarke NA, Kraft LM. Immunological reactions of the coxsackie viruses. III. Cross-protection tests in infant mice born of vaccinated mothers. Transfer of immunity through the milk. J Exp Med. 1950;92:499–505.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Melnick JL, Wenner HA, Phillips CA. Enteroviruses. In: Lennette EH, Schmidt NJ, editors. Diagnostic procedures for viral, rickettsial, and chlamydial infections. 5th ed. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association; 1979. p. 471–534.

    Google Scholar 

  • Messacar K, Schreiner TL, Van Haren K, Yang M, Glaser CA, Tyler KL, Dominguez SR. Acute flaccid myelitis: A clinical review of US cases 2012–2015. Ann Neurol. 2016;80(3):326–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Messacar K, Robinson CC, Pretty K, Yuan J, Dominguez SR. Surveillance for enterovirus D68 in Colorado children reveals continued circulation. J Clin Virol. 2017;92:39–41.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Messacar K, Asturias EJ, Hixon AM, Van Leer-Buter C, Niesters HGM, Tyler KL, Abzug MJ, Dominguez SR. Enterovirus D68 and acute flaccid myelitis-evaluating the evidence for causality. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018;18(8):e239–47.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Messacar K, Spence-Davizon E, Osborne C, Press C, Schreiner TL, Martin J, Messer R, Maloney J, Burakoff A, Barnes M, Rogers S, Lopez AS, Routh J, Gerber SI, Oberste MS, Nix WA, Abzug MJ, Tyler KL, Herlihy R, Dominguez SR. Clinical characteristics of enterovirus A71 neurological disease during an outbreak in children in Colorado, USA, in 2018: an observational cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20(2):230–239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Metcalf TG, Melnick JL. Simple apparatus for collecting estuarine sediments and suspended solids to detect solids-associated virus. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1983;45:323–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Midgley CM, Jackson MA, Selvarangan R, Turabelidze G, Obringer E, Johnson D, Giles BL, Patel A, Echols F, Oberste MS, Nix WA, Watson JT, Gerber SI. Severe respiratory illness associated with enterovirus D68 – Missouri and Illinois, 2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63(36):798–9.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Midgley CM, Watson JT, Nix WA, Curns AT, Rogers SL, Brown BA, Conover C, Dominguez SR, Feikin DR, Gray S, Hassan F, Hoferka S, Jackson MA, Johnson D, Leshem E, Miller L, Nichols JB, Nyquist AC, Obringer E, Patel A, Patel M, Rha B, Schneider E, Schuster JE, Selvarangan R, Seward JF, Turabelidze G, Oberste MS, Pallansch MA, Gerber SI, Group, E.-D. W. Severe respiratory illness associated with a nationwide outbreak of enterovirus D68 in the USA-2014: a descriptive epidemiological investigation. Lancet Respir Med. 2015;3(11):879–87.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Midgley SE, Benschop K, Dyrdak R, Mirand A, Bailly JL, Bierbaum S, Buderus S, Bottcher S, Eis-Hubinger AM, Honemann M, Jensen VV, Hartling UB, Henquell C, Panning M, Thomsen MK, Hodcroft EB, Meijer A. Co-circulation of multiple enterovirus D68 subclades, including a novel B3 cluster, across Europe in a season of expected low prevalence, 2019/20. Euro Surveill. 2020;25(2):1–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Mirand A, Henquell C, Archimbaud C, Ughetto S, Antona D, Bailly JL, Peigue-Lafeuille H. Outbreak of hand, foot and mouth disease/herpangina associated with coxsackievirus A6 and A10 infections in 2010, France: a large citywide, prospective observational study. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2012;18(5):E110–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mirkovic RR, Kono R, Yin-Murphy M, Sohier R, Schmidt NJ, Melnick JL. Enterovirus type 70: the etiologic agent of pandemic acute haemorrhagic conjunctivitis. Bull World Health Organ. 1973;49(4):341–6.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mishra N, Ng TFF, Marine RL, Jain K, Ng J, Thakkar R, Caciula A, Price A, Garcia JA, Burns JC, Thakur KT, Hetzler KL, Routh JA, Konopka-Anstadt JL, Nix WA, Tokarz R, Briese T, Oberste MS, Lipkin WI. Antibodies to enteroviruses in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with acute flaccid myelitis. mBio. 2019;10(4):e01903–19.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Modlin JF. Perinatal echovirus infection: insights from a literature review of 61 cases of serious infection and 16 outbreaks in nurseries. Rev Infect Dis. 1986;8(6):918–26.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moore M, Morens DM. Enteroviruses, including polioviruses. In: Belshe RB, editor. Textbook of human virology. Littleton: PSG Publishing Co.; 1984. p. 407–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morens DM, Pallansch MA, Moore M. Polioviruses and other enteroviruses. In: Belshe RB, editor. Textbook of human virology. St. Louis: Mosby Yearbook; 1990. p. 427–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moya-Suri V, Schlosser M, Zimmermann K, Rjasanowski I, Gurtler L, Mentel R. Enterovirus RNA sequences in sera of schoolchildren in the general population and their association with type 1-diabetes-associated autoantibodies. J Med Microbiol. 2005;54(Pt 9):879–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy OC, Messacar K, Benson L, Bove R, Carpenter JL, Crawford T, Dean J, DeBiasi R, Desai J, Elrick MJ, Farias-Moeller R, Gombolay GY, Greenberg B, Harmelink M, Hong S, Hopkins SE, Oleszek J, Otten C, Sadowsky CL, Schreiner TL, Thakur KT, Van Haren K, Carballo CM, Chong PF, Fall A, Gowda VK, Helfferich J, Kira R, Lim M, Lopez EL, Wells EM, Yeh EA, Pardo CA, Salazar-Camelo A, Mithal D, Wilson-Murphy M, Bauer A, Watkins C, Abzug M, Dominguez S, Press C, Yang M, Ahsan N, Ramos-Platt L, Tiongson E, Seruya M, Tilton A, Katz E, Kirschen M, Shah A, Ulloa E, Yum S, Mondok L, Blaufuss M, Rosenfeld A, Vargas W, Zucker J, Yeshokumar A, Navis A, Chao K, Hagen K, Melicosta M, Porter C, Tunney M, Scheuermann R, Duggal P, Pekosz A, Bayliss A, Moore M, Belzberg A, Bembea M, O’Brien C, Riggs R, Nance J, Milstone A, Rice J, Garcia-Dominguez MA, Flanagan E, Tillema J-M, Bosques G, Bhatia S, Gordon-Lipkin E, Deike D, Revivo G, Zlotolow D, deFiebre G, Lazerow P, Lotze T, Bitnun A, Davidge K, Vajsar J, Moore A, Konersman C, Nash K, Strober J, Gupta N, Chiu C, Sweeney M, Jackson W, Simon D, et al. Acute flaccid myelitis: cause, diagnosis, and management. Lancet. 2021;397(10271):334–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neva FA, Enders JF. Cytopathogenic agents isolated from patients during an unusual epidemic exanthem. J Immunol. 1954;72(4):307–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neva FA, Zuffante SM. Agents isolated from patients with Boston exanthem disease during 1954 in Pittsburgh. J Lab Clin Med. 1957;50(5):712–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nicholson E, Piedra PA. Local versus global enterovirus (EV) surveillance: a discussion for the need for active surveillance to guide EV-A71 vaccines. J Infect Dis. 2017;216(11):1337–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nicola P, Baratono S, Tovo PA. On a case of congenital immunological deficiency (sex-linked agammaglobulinemia?). Minerva Pediatr. 1974;26(37):1872–80.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nishimura Y, Shimojima M, Tano Y, Miyamura T, Wakita T, Shimizu H. Human P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 is a functional receptor for enterovirus 71. Nat Med. 2009;15:794–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nix WA, Oberste MS, Pallansch MA. Sensitive, seminested PCR amplification of VP1 sequences for direct identification of all enterovirus serotypes from original clinical specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 2006;44(8):2698–704.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nix WA, Maher K, Niklasson B, Lindberg M, Johansson S, Pallansch MA, Oberste MS. Detection of all known parechoviruses by real time-PCR. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46(8):2519–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Noordhoek GT, Weel JFL, Poelstra E, Hooghiemstra M, Brandenburg A. Clinical validation of a new real-time PCR assay for detection of enteroviruses and parechoviruses, and implications for diagnostic procedures. J Clin Virol. 2008;41:75–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Norder H, Bjerregaard L, Magnius LO. Homotypic echoviruses share aminoterminal VP1 sequence homology applicable for typing. J Med Virol. 2001;63:35–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nsaibia S, Wagner S, Ronde P, Warter JM, Poindron P, Aouni M, Dorchies OM. The difficult-to-cultivate coxsackieviruses a can productively multiply in primary culture of mouse skeletal muscle. Virus Res. 2007;123(1):30–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oberste MS, Pallansch MA. Enterovirus molecular detection and typing. Rev Med Microbiol. 2005;16:163–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oberste MS, Maher K, Kilpatrick DR, Flemister MR, Brown BA, Pallansch MA. Typing of human enteroviruses by partial sequencing of VP1. J Clin Microbiol. 1999a;37(5):1288–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Oberste MS, Maher K, Kilpatrick DR, Pallansch MA. Molecular evolution of the human enteroviruses: correlation of serotype with VP1 sequence and application to picornavirus classification. J Virol. 1999b;73(3):1941–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Oberste MS, Maher K, Kilpatrick DR, Pallansch MA. Molecular evolution of the human enteroviruses: correlation of serotype with VP1 sequence and application to picornavirus classification. J Virol. 1999c;73(3):1941–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Oberste MS, Maher K, Flemister MR, Marchetti G, Kilpatrick DR, Pallansch MA. Comparison of classic and molecular approaches for the identification of untypeable enteroviruses. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38(3):1170–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Oberste MS, Schnurr D, Maher K, Al-Busaidy S, Pallansch MA. Molecular identification of new picornaviruses and characterization of a proposed enterovirus 73 serotype. J Gen Virol. 2001;82:409–16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oberste MS, Maher K, Schnurr D, Flemister MR, Lovchik JC, Peters H, Sessions W, Kirk C, Chatterjee N, Fuller S, Hanauer JM, Pallansch MA. Enterovirus 68 is associated with respiratory illness and shares biological features with both the enteroviruses and the rhinoviruses. J Gen Virol. 2004;85(Pt 9):2577–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oberste MS, Maher K, Williams AJ, Dybdahl-Sissoko N, Brown BA, Gookin MS, Penaranda S, Mishrik N, Uddin M, Pallansch MA. Species-specific RT-PCR amplification of human enteroviruses: a tool for rapid species identification of uncharacterized enteroviruses. J Gen Virol. 2006;87:119–28.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oberste MS, Feeroz MM, Maher K, Nix WA, Engel GA, Chowdhury AH, Pallansch MA, Jones-Engel L. Characterizing the picornavirus landscape among synanthropic nonhuman primates in Bangladesh, 2007–2008. J Virol. 2013;87:558–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ogra PL, Fishaut M, Gallagher MR. Viral vaccination via the mucosal routes. Rev Infect Diseases. 1980;2:352–69.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ohara N, Kaneko M, Nishibori T, Sato K, Furukawa T, Koike T, Sone H, Kaneko K, Kamoi K. Fulminant type 1 diabetes mellitus associated with coxsackie virus type A2 infection: a case report and literature review. Intern Med. 2016;55(6):643–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Neil KM, Pallansch MA, Winkelstein JA, Lock TM, Modlin JF. Chronic group A coxsackievirus infection in agammaglobulinemia: demonstration of genomic variation of serotypically identical isolates persistently excreted by the same patient. J Infect Dis. 1988;157(1):183–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ooi MH, Wong SC, Lewthwaite P, Cardosa MJ, Solomon T. Clinical features, diagnosis, and management of enterovirus 71. Lancet Neurol. 2010;9(11):1097–105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Osterback R, Vuorinen T, Linna M, Susi P, Hyypia T, Waris M. Coxsackievirus A6 and hand, foot, and mouth disease, Finland. Emerg Infect Dis. 2009;15(9):1485–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Otero JR, Folgueira L, Trallero G, Prieto C, Maldonado S, Babiano MJ, Martinez-Alonso I. A-549 is a suitable cell line for primary isolation of coxsackie B viruses. J Med Virol. 2001;65(3):534–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Padate BP, Keidan J. Enteroviral meningoencephalitis in a patient with non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma treated previously with rituximab. Clin Lab Haematol. 2006;28(1):69–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pallansch MA, Oberste MS. Coxsackievirus, echovirus, and other enteroviruses. In: Gorbach SL, Bartlett JG, Blacklow NR, editors. Infectious diseases. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2004. p. 2047–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pallansch MA, Oberste MS. Enteroviruses and parechoviruses. In: Specter S, Hodinka RL, Young SA, editors. Clinical virology manual. Washington, DC: ASM Press; 2009. p. 249–82.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Pallansch MA, Roos R. Enteroviruses: polioviruses, coxsackieviruses, echoviruses, and newer enteroviruses. In: Knipe DM, Howley PM, Griffin DE, Lamb RA, Martin MA, Roizman B, Straus SE, editors. Fields Virology. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2006. p. 839–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Panel for Picornaviruses. Picornaviruses: classification of nine new types. Science. 1963;141:153–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park SW, Farrar J, Messacar K, Meyers L, Pons-Salort M, Grenfell BT. Epidemiological dynamics of enterovirus D68 in the US: implications for acute flaccid myelitis. Sci Transl Med. 2021;13(584):eabd2400.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parks WP, Queiroga LT, Melnick JL. Studies of infantile diarrhea in Karachi, Pakistan. II. Multiple virus isolations from rectal swabs. Am J Epidemiol. 1967;85(3):469–78.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parrott RH. Herpangina and herpetic gingivostomatitis; clinical differentiation. Postgrad Med. 1955;17(4):298–301.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patel JR, Daniel J, Mathan M, Mathan VI. Isolation and identification of enteroviruses from faecal samples in a differentiated epithelial cell line (HRT-18) derived from human rectal carcinoma. J Med Virol. 1984;14(3):255–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Patel JR, Daniel J, Mathan VI. A comparison of the susceptibility of three human gut tumour-derived differentiated epithelial cell lines, primary monkey kidney cells and human rhabdomyosarcoma cell line to 66-prototype strains of human enteroviruses. J Virol Methods. 1985;12(3–4):209–16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Patriarca PA, Onorato IM, Sklar VE, Schonberger LB, Kaminski RM, Hatch MH, Morens DM, Forster RK. Acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis investigation of a large-scale community outbreak in Dade County, Florida. J Am Med Assoc. 1983;249(10):1283–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pattison JR. Tests for coxsackie B virus-specific IgM. J Hyg. 1983;90(3):327–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Paul JR, Riordan JT, Melnick JL. Antibodies to three different antigenic types of poliomyelitis virus in sera from north Alaskan Eskimos. Am J Hyg. 1951;54:275–85.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Piñeiro L, Vicente D, Montes M, Hernández-Dorronsoro U, Cilla G. Human parechoviruses in infants with systemic infection. J Med Virol. 2010;82(10):1790–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pinto RM, Diez JM, Bosch A. Use of the colonic carcinoma cell line CaCo-2 for in vivo amplification and detection of enteric viruses. J Med Virol. 1994;44(3):310–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prather SL, Jenista JA, Menegus MA. The isolation of nonpolio enteroviruses from serum. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 1984;2(4):353–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quartier P, Foray S, Casanova JL, Hau-Rainsard I, Blanche S, Fischer A. Enteroviral meningoencephalitis in X-linked agammaglobulinemia: intensive immunoglobulin therapy and sequential viral detection in cerebrospinal fluid by polymerase chain reaction. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2000;19(11):1106–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rahamat-Langendoen J, Riezebos-Brilman A, Borger R, van der Heide R, Brandenburg A, Scholvinck E, Niesters HG. Upsurge of human enterovirus 68 infections in patients with severe respiratory tract infections. J Clin Virol. 2011;52(2):103–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ramos-Alvarez M, Sabin AB. Characteristics of poliomyelitis and other enteric viruses recovered in tissue culture from healthy American children. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1956;87:655–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robbins FC, Enders JF, Weller TH, Florentino GL. Studies on the cultivation of poliomyelitis viruses in tissue culture. V. The direct isolation and serologic identification of virus strains in tissue culture from patients with nonparalytic and paralytic poliomyelitis. Am J Hyg. 1951;54:286–93.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rorabaugh ML, Berlin LE, Heldrich F, Roberts K, Rosenberg LA, Doran T, Modlin JF. Aseptic meningitis in infants younger than 2 years of age: acute illness and neurologic complications. Pediatrics. 1993;92(2):206–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosen L, Melnick JL, Schmidt J, Wenner HA. Subclassification of enteroviruses and ECHO virus type 34. Brief report. Arch Gesamte Virusforsch. 1970;30(1):89–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rossmann MG, He Y, Kuhn RJ. Picornavirus-receptor interactions. Trends Microbiol. 2002;10(7):324–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rotbart HA. New methods of rapid enteroviral diagnosis. Prog Med Virol. 1991;38:96–108.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rotbart HA, editor. Human enterovirus infections. Washington, DC: ASM Press; 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rotbart HA, Romero JR. Laboratory diagnosis of enteroviral infections. In: Rotbart HA, editor. Human enterovirus infections. Washington, DC: ASM Press; 1995. p. 401–18.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Rotbart HA, Brennan PJ, Fife KH, Romero JR, Griffin JA, McKinlay MA, Hayden FG. Enterovirus meningitis in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;27(4):896–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Safferman R (1984) US EPA manual of methods for virology EPA/600/4–84/013. Available online: http://epa.gov/nerlcwww/about.html. Accessed 7 Jan 2022

  • Saijets S, Ylipaasto P, Vaarala O, Hovi T, Roivainen M. Enterovirus infection and activation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells. J Med Virol. 2003;70(3):430–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sarmiento L, Cabrera-Rode E, Lekuleni L, Cuba I, Molina G, Fonseca M, Heng-Hung L, Borroto AD, Gonzalez P, Mas-Lago P, Diaz-Horta O. Occurrence of enterovirus RNA in serum of children with newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes and islet cell autoantibody-positive subjects in a population with a low incidence of type 1 diabetes. Autoimmunity. 2007;40(7):540–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schaeffer FL. Binding of proflavine by and photoinactivation of poliovirus propagated in the presence of the dye. Virology. 1962;18:412–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schieble JH, Fox VL, Lennette EH. A probable new human picornavirus associated with respiratory diseases. Am J Epidemiol. 1967;85(2):297–310.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt NJ, Ho HH, Lennette EH. Propagation and isolation of group A coxsackieviruses in RD cells. J Clin Microbiol. 1975;2(3):183–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schmugge M, Lauener R, Bossart W, Seger RA, Gungor T. Chronic enteroviral meningo-encephalitis in X-linked agammaglobulinaemia: favourable response to anti-enteroviral treatment. Eur J Pediatr. 1999;158(12):1010–1.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider-Schaulies J. Cellular receptors for viruses: links to tropism and pathogenesis. J Gen Virol. 2000;81(Pt 6):1413–29.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sejvar JJ, Lopez AS, Cortese MM, Leshem E, Pastula DM, Miller L, Glaser C, Kambhampati A, Shioda K, Aliabadi N, Fischer M, Gregoricus N, Lanciotti R, Nix WA, Sakthivel SK, Schmid DS, Seward JF, Tong S, Oberste MS, Pallansch M, Feikin D. Acute flaccid myelitis in the United States, August-December 2014: results of nationwide surveillance. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;63(6):737–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Selvarangan R, Nzabi M, Selvaraju SB, Ketter P, Carpenter C, Harrison CJ. Human parechovirus 3 causing sepsis-like illness in children from midwestern United States. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2011;30(3):238–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Semler BL, Wimmer E, editors. Molecular biology of the picornaviruses. Washington, DC: ASM Press; 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharp J, Harrison CJ, Puckett K, Selvaraju SB, Penaranda S, Nix WA, Oberste MS, Selvarangan R. Characteristics of young infants in whom human parechovirus, enterovirus or neither were detected in cerebrospinal fluid during sepsis evaluations. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2013;32:213–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shaver (1960) Distinctive cytpathology of ECHO virus type 22 and 23. Society of American Bacteriology Conference.

    Google Scholar 

  • She RC, Crist G, Billetdeaux E, Langer J, Petti CA. Comparison of multiple shell vial cell lines for isolation of enteroviruses: a national perspective. J Clin Virol. 2006;37:151–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sklar VE, Patriarca PA, Onorato IM, Langford MP, Clark SW, Culbertson WW, Forster RK. Clinical findings and results of treatment in an outbreak of acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis in southern Florida. Am J Ophthalmol. 1983;95(1):45–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spigland I, Fox JP, Elveback LR, Wassermann FE, Ketler A, Brandt CD, Kogon A. The virus watch program: a continuing surveillance of viral infections in metropolitan New York families. II. Laboratory methods and preliminary report on infections revealed by virus isolation. Am J Epidemiol. 1966;83(3):413–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stanway G, Kalkkinen N, Roivainen M, Ghazi F, Khan M, Smyth M, Meurman O, Hyypia T. Molecular and biological characteristics of echovirus 22, a representative of a new picornavirus group. J Virol. 1994;68(12):8232–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Stene LC, Rewers M. Immunology in the clinic review series; focus on type 1 diabetes and viruses: the enterovirus link to type 1 diabetes: critical review of human studies. Clin Exp Immunol. 2012;168:12–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sun S, Gao F, Hu Y, Bian L, Wu X, Su Y, Du R, Fu Y, Zhu F, Mao Q, Liang Z. A cross-sectional seroepidemiology study of EV-D68 in China. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2018;7(1):99.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Swanink CM, Veenstra L, Poort YA, Kaan JA, Galama JM. Coxsackievirus B1-based antibody-capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of immunoglobulin G (IgG), IgM, and IgA with broad specificity for enteroviruses. J Clin Microbiol. 1993;31(12):3240–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tauriainen S, Oikarinen S, Oikarinen M, Hyoty H. Enteroviruses in the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes. Semin Immunopathol. 2011;33(1):45–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tavares FN, Costa EV, Oliveira SS, Nicolai CC, Baran M, da Silva EE. Acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis and coxsackievirus A24v, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 2004. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(3):495–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tebruegge M, Curtis N. Enterovirus infections in neonates. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2009;14(4):222–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Terletskaia-Ladwig E, Metzger C, Schalasta G, Enders G. Evaluation of enterovirus serological tests IgM-EIA and complement fixation in patients with meningitis, confirmed by detection of enteroviral RNA by RT-PCR in cerebrospinal fluid. J Med Virol. 2000;61(2):221–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • The TEDDY Study Group. The environmental determinants of diabetes in the Young (TEDDY) study: study design. Pediatr Diabetes. 2007;8:286–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thibaut HJ, Leyssen P, Puerstinger G, Muigg A, Neyts J, De Palma AM. Towards the design of combination therapy for the treatment of enterovirus infections. Antivir Res. 2011;90:213–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thibaut HJ, De Palma AM, Neyts J. Combating enterovirus replication: state-of-the-art on antiviral research. Biochem Pharmacol. 2012;83:185–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tracy S, Oberste MS, Drescher KM, editors. Group B coxsackieviruses. Berlin: Springer; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  • Triki H, Rezig D, Bahri O, Ben Ayed N, Ben Yahia A, Sadraoui A, Ayed S. Molecular characterisation of a coxsackievirus A24 that caused an outbreak of acute haemorrhagic conjunctivitis, Tunisia 2003. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2007;13(2):176–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Uprety P, Curtis D, Elkan M, Fink J, Rajagopalan R, Zhao C, Bittinger K, Mitchell S, Ulloa ER, Hopkins S, Graf EH. Association of enterovirus D68 with acute flaccid myelitis, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA, 2009–2018. Emerg Infect Dis. 2019;25(9):1676–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • van der Kolk LE, Baars JW, Prins MH, van Oers MH. Rituximab treatment results in impaired secondary humoral immune responsiveness. Blood. 2002;100(6):2257–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Verboon-Maciolek MA, Krediet TG, van Loon AM, Kaan J, Galama JM, Gerards LJ, Fleer A. Epidemiological survey of neonatal non-polio enterovirus infection in The Netherlands. J Med Virol. 2002;66(2):241–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Verboon-Maciolek MA, Krediet TG, Gerards LJ, de Vries LS, Groenendaal F, van Loon AM. Severe neonatal parechovirus infection and similarity with enterovirus infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2008;27(3):241–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Verma NA, Zheng XT, Harris MU, Cadichon SB, Melin-Aldana H, Khetsuriani N, Oberste MS, Shulman ST. Outbreak of life-threatening coxsackievirus B1 myocarditis in neonates. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49(5):759–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vogt MR, Wright PF, Hickey WF, De Buysscher T, Boyd KL, Crowe JE Jr. Enterovirus D68 in the anterior horn cells of a childre with acute flaccid myelitis. NEJM. 2022;386(21):2059–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walker AT, Williams AJ, Gary HE Jr, Pallansch MA, Wassilak SG, Oberste MS. Effect of time at temperature on wild poliovirus titers in stool specimens. Virology. 2015;482:28–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wallace GS, Curns AT, Weldon WC, Oberste MS. Seroprevalence of poliovirus antibodies in the United States population, 2009-2010. BMC Public Health. 2016;16:721.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wallis C, Melnick JL. Cationic stabilization—a new property of enteroviruses. Virology. 1961;16:683–700.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallis C, Melnick JL. Photodynamic inactivation of enteroviruses. J Bacteriol. 1965;89:41–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wallis C, Homma A, Melnick JL. A portable virus concentrator for testing water in the field. Water Res. 1972;6:1249–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walters B, Peñaranda S, Nix WA, Oberste MS, Todd KM, Katz BZ, Zheng X. Detection of human parechovirus (HPeV)-3 in spinal fluid specimens from pediatric patients in the Chicago area. J Clin Virol. 2011;52(3):187–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang SY, Lin TL, Chen HY, Lin TS. Early and rapid detection of enterovirus 71 infection by an IgM-capture ELISA. J Virol Methods. 2004;119(1):37–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang SM, Ho TS, Lin HC, Lei HY, Wang JR, Liu CC. Reemerging of enterovirus 71 in Taiwan: the age impact on disease severity. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2012;31:1219–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang CYT, Ware RS, Lambert SB, Mhango LP, Tozer S, Day R, Grimwood K, Bialasiewicz S. Parechovirus a infections in healthy Australian children during the first 2 years of life: a community-based longitudinal birth cohort study. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(1):116–27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Watanabe K, Oie M, Nishikawa M, Fujii M. Isolation and characterization of a novel human parechovirus from various clinical samples. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13:889–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Watanabe K, Hirokawa C, Tazawa T. Seropositivity and epidemiology of human parechovirus types 1, 3, and 6 in Japan. Epidemiol Infect. 2016;144(16):3451–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weber B, Rabenau H, Cinatl J, Maass G, Doerr HW. Quantitative detection of neutralizing antibodies against polioviruses and non-polio enteroviruses (NPEV) using an automated microneutralization assay: a seroepidemiologic survey. Zentralblatt fur Bakteriologie. 1994;280(4):540–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wei SH, Huang YP, Liu MC, Tsou TP, Lin HC, Lin TL, Tsai CY, Chao YN, Chang LY, Hsu CM. An outbreak of coxsackievirus A6 hand, foot, and mouth disease associated with onychomadesis in Taiwan, 2010. BMC Infect Dis. 2011;11:346.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Weller TH, Enders JF, Buckingham M, Finn JJ Jr. The etiology of epidemic pleurodynia: a study of two viruses isolated from a typical outbreak. J Immunol. 1950;65(3):337–46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2015) WHO Enterovirus Surveillance Guidelines. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/344375. Accessed 28 July 2023

  • Wikswo ME, Khetsuriani N, Fowlkes AL, Zheng X, Penaranda S, Verma N, Shulman ST, Sircar K, Robinson CC, Schmidt T, Schnurr D, Oberste MS. Increased activity of coxsackievirus B1 strains associated with severe disease among young infants in the United States, 2007–2008. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49(5):e44–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilfert CM, Buckley RH, Mohanakumar T, Griffith JF, Katz SL, Whisnant JK, Eggleston PA, Moore M, Treadwell E, Oxman MN, Rosen FS. Persistent and fatal central-nervous-system ECHOvirus infections in patients with agammaglobulinemia. N Engl J Med. 1977;296(26):1485–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolthers KC, Benschop KS, Schinkel J, Molenkamp R, Bergevoet RM, Spijkerman IJ, Kraakman HC, Pajkrt D. Human parechoviruses as an important viral cause of sepsis like illness and meningitis in young children. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47(3):358–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woodruff JF. Viral myocarditis. A review. Am J Pathol. 1980;101(2):425–84.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yamayoshi S, Yamashita Y, Li J, Hanagata N, Minowa T, Takemura T, Koike S. Scavenger receptor B2 is a cellular receptor for enterovirus 71. Nat Med. 2009;15:798–801.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yan D, Zhu S, Zhang Y, Zhang J, Zhou Y, Xu W. Outbreak of acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis in Yunnan, People’s Republic of China, 2007. Virol J. 2010;7:138.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yin-Murphy M. Viruses of acute haemorrhagic conjunctivitis. Lancet. 1973;1(7802):545–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yin-Murphy M. Acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis. Prog Med Virol. 1984;29:23–44.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yin-Murphy M, Lim KH. Picornavirus epidemic conjunctivitis in Singapore. Lancet. 1972;2(7782):857–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yin-Murphy M, Baharuddin I, Phoon MC, Chow VT. A recent epidemic of coxsackie virus type A24 acute haemorrhagic conjunctivitis in Singapore. Br J Ophthalmol. 1986;70(11):869–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zell R. Picornaviridae-the ever-growing virus family. Arch Virol. 2018;163(2):299–317.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zell R, Delwart E, Gorbalenya AE, Hovi T, King AMQ, Knowles NJ, Lindberg AM, Pallansch MA, Palmenberg AC, Reuter G, Simmonds P, Skern T, Stanway G, Yamashita T, Ictv Report C. ICTV virus taxonomy profile: picornaviridae. J Gen Virol. 2017;98(10):2421–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang Y, Tan XJ, Wang HY, Yan DM, Zhu SL, Wang DY, Ji F, Wang XJ, Gao YJ, Chen L, An HQ, Li DX, Wang SW, Xu AQ, Wang ZJ, Xu WB. An outbreak of hand, foot, and mouth disease associated with subgenotype C4 of human enterovirus 71 in Shandong, China. J Clin Virol. 2009;44(4):262–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu R, Cheng T, Yin Z, Liu D, Xu L, Li Y, Wang W, Liu J, Que Y, Ye X, Tang Q, Zhao Q, Ge S, He S, Xia N. Serological survey of neutralizing antibodies to eight major enteroviruses among healthy population. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2018;7(1):2.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ziegler JB, Penny R. Fatal echo 30 virus infection and amyloidosis in X-linked hypogammaglobulinemia. Clin Immunol Immunopathol. 1975;3(3):347–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Viral Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA

    Eileen Yee, Janell A. Routh & M. Steven Oberste

  2. Cherokee Nation Assurance, Contractor, Tulsa, OK, USA

    Eileen Yee

  3. Coronavirus and Other Respiratory Viruses Division, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA

    Claire M. Midgley

Authors
  1. Eileen Yee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Claire M. Midgley
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Janell A. Routh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. M. Steven Oberste
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Janell A. Routh .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. School of Public Health, Yale University, Washington, DC, USA

    Richard A. Kaslow

  2. Vagelos College of Physicians & Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA

    Lawrence R. Stanberry

  3. Cters for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonoti, Fort Collins, CO, USA

    Ann M. Powers

Section Editor information

  1. Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA

    James W. Le Duc

  2. Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY, USA

    Lawrence R. Stanberry

Appendices

Appendices

Fig. 1
figure 1

Current classification of the Picornaviridae family consists of 68 genera. Highlighted in solid boxes in this figure are the genus Parechovirus and genus Enterovirus only along with their species and types that primarily affect humans. Dashed boxes added for completeness but will not be further described. Classification data obtained from https://picornaviridae.com/, accessed July 10, 2023

Full size image
Fig. 2
figure 2

Percentage of untyped enterovirus (EV)/rhinovirus (RV) positive PCR tests from respiratory specimens reported weekly from participating United States laboratories to National Respiratory and Enteric Virus Surveillance System (NREVSS) from January 1, 2014, to December 31, 2019, (CDC internal communication, unpublished data)

Full size image
Fig. 3
figure 3

General schematic of the genome for enterovirus and parechovirus

Full size image
Fig. 4
figure 4

Confirmed cases of acute flaccid myelitis (AFM) reported to CDC, by month and year (N = 618) in United States from August 1, 2014, to December 31, 2019. *(CDC internal communication, unpublished data)

Full size image

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2024 This is a U.S. Government work and not under copyright protection in the U.S.; foreign copyright protection may apply

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Yee, E., Midgley, C.M., Routh, J.A., Oberste, M.S. (2024). Enteroviruses and Parechoviruses: Echoviruses, Coxsackieviruses, and Others. In: Kaslow, R.A., Stanberry, L.R., Powers, A.M. (eds) Viral Infections of Humans. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-9544-8_11-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-9544-8_11-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4939-9544-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4939-9544-8

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation