Abstract
Hypertension is a major global chronic noncommunicable disease (NCD). Despite continued efforts to establish public policies to ensure surveillance and monitoring, the absolute numbers of patients affected by hypertension in low- and middle-income countries are likely to grow, as economic improvement favors longer life expectancy. Increasing longevity provides longer periods of exposure to the risk factors of cardiovascular disease (CVD), resulting in a greater probability of clinical manifestation of CVD events, especially because of the lack of awareness and insufficient treatment of the affected individuals.
The survivors of an economic transition period are more likely to present the phenotype of lower birth weight coupled with either stunting or a higher body mass index in childhood or adulthood, which appears to be associated with the highest risks of morbid cardiovascular, renal, and metabolic outcomes into adulthood.
The combination of population-wide and individual interventions may save millions of lives and considerably reduce human suffering from NCDs.
References
Addo J, Smeeth L, Leon DA (2007) Hypertension in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review. Hypertension 50:1012–1018
Armitage JA, Khan IY, Taylor PD, Nathanielsz PW, Poston L (2004) Developmental programming of the metabolic syndrome by maternal nutritional imbalance: how strong is the evidence from experimental models in mammals? J Physiol 561:355–377
Bagby SP (2007) Maternal nutrition, low nephron number, and hypertension in later life: pathways of nutritional programming. J Nutr 137:1066–1072
Barker DJ (2004) Developmental origins of adult health and disease. J Epidemiol Community Health 58:114–115
Barker DJP (2012) Sir Richard doll lecture developmental origins of chronic disease. Public Health 126:185–189
Barker DJ, Osmond C (1986) Infant mortality, childhood nutrition, and ischaemic heart disease in England and Wales. Lancet 1:1077–1081
Barker DJ, Osmond C, Golding J, Kuh D, Wadsworth ME (1989a) Growth in utero, blood pressure in childhood and adult life, and mortality from cardiovascular disease. BMJ 298:564–567
Barker DJ, Osmond C, Law CM (1989b) The intrauterine and early postnatal origins of cardiovascular disease and chronic bronchitis. J Epidemiol Community Health 43:237–240
Barker DJ, Osmond C, Winter PD, Margetts BM, Simmonds SJ (1989c) Weight in infancy and death from ischaemic heart disease. Lancet 2:577–580
Barker DJ, Bull AR, Osmond C, Simmonds SJ (1990) Fetal and placental size and risk of hypertension in adult life. BMJ 301:259–262
Barker DJP, Hales CN, Fall CHD, Osmond C, Phipps K, Clark PMS (1993a) Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus, hypertension and hyperlipidemia (syndrome X): relation to reduced fetal growth. Diabetologia 36:62–67
Barker DJP, Martyn CN, Osmond C, Haleb CN, Fall CHD (1993b) Growth in utero and serum cholesterol concentrations in adult life. BMJ 307:1524–1527
Barker DJ, Eriksson JG, Forsen T, Osmond C (2002) Fetal origins of adult disease: strength of effects and biological basis. Int J Epidemiol 31:1235–1239
Barker DJ, Osmond C, Forsén TJ, Kajantie E, Eriksson JG (2005) Trajectories of growth among children who have coronary events as adults. N Engl J Med 353:1802–1809
Bateson P, Barker D, Clutton-Brock T, Deb D, Foley RA, Gluckman P, Godfrey K, Kirkwood T, Mirazón Lahr M, Macnamara J, Metcalfe NB, Monaghan P, Spencer HG, Sultan SE (2004) Developmental plasticity and human health. Nature 430(430):419–421
Bergvall N, Iliadou A, Johansson S, de Faire U, Kramer MS, Pawitan Y, Pedersen NL, Lichtenstein P, Cnattingius S (2007) Genetic and shared environmental factors do not confound the association between birth weight and hypertension: a study among Swedish twins. Circulation 115:2931–2938
Blanchette E, Flynn JT (2019) Implications of the 2017 AAP clinical practice guidelines for Management of Hypertension in children and adolescents: a review. Curr Hypertens Rep 21(5):35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11906-019-0943-x. PMID: 30953215; PMCID: PMC6705594
Blencowe H, Krasevec J, de Onis M, Black RE, An X, Stevens GA et al (2019) National, regional, and worldwide estimates of low birthweight in 2015, with trends from 2000: a systematic analysis. Lancet Glob Health 7(7):e849–e860. ISSN 2214-109X
Boyko EJ (2000) Proportion of type 2 diabetes cases resulting from impaired fetal growth. Diabetes Care 23:1260–1264
Brook JS, Whiteman M, Brook DW (1999) Transmission of risk factors across three generations. Psychol Rep 85:227–241
Brouwers S, Sudano I, Kokubo Y, Sulaica EM (2021) Arterial hypertension. The Lancet 398(10296):249–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00221-X. ISSN 0140-6736
Campese VM, Parise M, Karubian F, Bigazzi R (1991) Abnormal renal hemodynamics in black salt-sensitive patients with hypertension. Hypertension 18:805–812
Celsi G, Kistner A, Aizman R, Eklöf AC, Ceccatelli S, de Santiago A, Jacobson SH (1998) Prenatal dexamethasone causes oligonephronia, sodium retention, and higher blood pressure in the offspring. Pediatr Res 44:317–322
Chiolero A, Cachat F, Burnier M, Paccaud F, Bovet P (2007) Prevalence of hypertension in schoolchildren based on repeated measurements and association with overweight. J Hypertens 25(11):2209–2217. https://doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0b013e3282ef48b2
Clinical Practice Guideline for Screening and Management of High Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents, Flynn JT, Kaelber DC, Baker-Smith CM, Blowey D, Carroll AE, Daniels SR, de Ferranti SD, Dionne JM, Falkner B, Flinn SK, Gidding SS, Goodwin C, Leu MG, Powers ME, Rea C, Samuels J, Simasek M, Thaker VV, Urbina EM (2017) Subcommittee on screening and management of high blood pressure in children. Pediatrics 140(3):e20171904. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-1904
Curhan GC, Willett WC, Rimm EB, Spiegelman D, Ascherio AL, Stampfer MJ (1996) Birth weight and adult hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and obesity in US men. Circulation 94:3246–3250
Eriksson JG, Osmond C, Barker DJ (2003) Pathways of infant and childhood growth that lead to type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 26:3006–3010
Ezzati M, Obermeyer Z, Tzoulaki I, Mayosi BM, Elliott P, Leon DA (2015) The contributions of risk factors and medical care to cardiovascular mortality trends. Nat Rev Cardiol 12(9):508–530
GBD (2019) Diseases and Injuries Collaborators Global burden of 369 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet 396:1204–1222. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30925-9
Gilbert T, Lelievre-Pegorier M, Merlet-Benichou C (1991) Long-term effects of mild oligonephronia induced in utero by gentamicin in the rat. Pediatr Res 30:450–456
Gluckman PD, Hanson MA (2004) Living with the past: evolution, development and patterns of disease. Science 305:1733–1736
Gluckman PD, Hanson MA, Beedle AS (2007) Early life events and their consequences for later disease; a life history and evolutionary perspective. Am J Hum Biol 19:1–19
Godfrey KM, Lillycrop KA, Burdge GC, Gluckman PD, Hanson MA (2007) Epigenetic mechanisms and the mismatch concept of the developmental origins of health and disease. Pediatr Res 61((5), Part 2 Supplement):5R–10R
Hales CN, Barker DJ (1992) Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus: the thrifty phenotype hypothesis. Diabetologia 35:595–601
Hales CN, Barker DJP (2001) The thrifty phenotype hypothesis. Br Med Bull 60:5–20
Health in 2015: from MDGs to SDGs. Non-communicable diseases. https://www.who.int/data/gho/publications/mdgs-sdgs. Accessed 30 Sept 2021
Heard E, Martienssen RA (2014) Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance: myths and mechanisms. Cell 157:95–109
Hinchliffe SA, Lynch MR, Sargent PH, Howard CV, Van Velzen D (1992) The effect of intrauterine growth retardation on the development of renal nephrons. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 99:296–301
Horikoshi M, Beaumont RN, Day FR, Warrington NM, Kooijman MN, Fernandez-Tajes J et al (2016) Genome-wide associations for birth weight and correlations with adult disease. Nature 538:248–252
Hoy WE, Hughson MD, Singh GR, Douglas-Denton R, Bertram JF (2006) Reduced nephron number and glomerulomegaly in Australian aborigines. A group at high risk for renal disease and hypertension. Kidney Int 70:104–110
https://www.who.int/cardiovascular_diseases/guidelines/PocketGL.ENGLISH.AFR-D-E.rev1.pdf. Accessed 30 Sept 2021
https://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/documents/MPSProgressReport09-FINAL.pdf. Accessed 30 Sept 2021
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hypertension. Accessed 30 Sept 2021
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/the-top-10-causes-of-death. Accessed 30 Sept 2021
https://www.who.int/nutgrowthdb/jme_brochure2016.pdf. Accessed 30 Sept 2021
https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/maternal_perinatal_health/RHR_03_11/en/. Accessed 30 Sept 2021
Jackson AA (2000) All that glitters. British Nutrition Foundation Annual Lecture. Nutr Bull 25:11–24
Juhola J, Magnussen CG, Berenson GS et al (2013) Combined effects of child and adult elevated blood pressure on subclinical atherosclerosis: the international childhood cardiovascular cohort consortium. Circulation 128(3):217–224. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.113.001614
Juonala M, Viikari JS, Raitakari OT (2013) Main findings from the prospective cardiovascular risk in young Finns study. Curr Opin Lipidol 24(1):57–64. https://doi.org/10.1097/MOL.0b013e32835a7ed4)
Kajantie E, Osmond C, Barker DJ, Forsén T, Phillips DI, Eriksson JG (2005) Size at birth as a predictor of mortality in adulthood: a follow-up of 350,000 person-years. Int J Epidemiol 34:655–663
Kearney PM, Whelton M, Reynolds K, Muntner P, Whelton PK, He J (2005) Global burden of hypertension: analysis of worldwide data. Lancet 365:217–223
Keijzer-Veen MG, Schrevel M, Finken MJ, Dekker FW, Nauta J, Hille ET, Frölich M, van der Heijden BJ, Dutch POPS-19 Collaborative Study Group (2005) Microalbuminuria and lower glomerular filtration rate at young adult age in subjects born very premature and after intrauterine growth retardation. J Am Soc Nephrol 16:2762–2768
Kelishadi R, Farajian S (2014) The protective effects of breastfeeding on chronic non-communicable diseases in adulthood: a review of evidence. Adv Biomed Res 3:3
Keller G, Zimmer G, Mall G, Ritz E, Amann K (2003) Nephron number in patients with primary hypertension. N Engl J Med 348:101–108
Kelly RK, Thomson R, Smith KJ, Dwyer T, Venn A, Magnussen CG (2015) Factors affecting tracking of blood pressure from childhood to adulthood: the childhood determinants of adult health study. J Pediatr 167(6):1422–8.e2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2015.07.055
Koskinen JS, Kytö V, Juonala M, Viikari JSA, Nevalainen J, Kähönen M, Lehtimäki T, Hutri-Kähönen N, Laitinen T, Tossavainen P, Jokinen E, Magnussen CG, Raitakari OT (2020) Childhood risk factors and carotid atherosclerotic plaque in adulthood: the cardiovascular risk in young Finns study. Atherosclerosis 293:18–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2019.11.029)
Lackland DT, Bendall HE, Osmond C, Egan BM, Barker DJ (2000) Low birth weights contribute to high rates of early-onset chronic renal failure in the Southeastern United States. Arch Intern Med 160:1472–1476
Law CM, de Swiet M, Osmond C, Fayers PM, Barker DJ, Cruddas AM, Fall CH (1993) Initiation of hypertension in utero and its amplification throughout life. BMJ 306:24–27
Lelièvre-Pégorier M, Vilar J, Ferrier ML, Moreau E, Freund N, Gilbert T, Merlet-Bénichou C (1998) Mild vitamin a deficiency leads to inborn nephron deficit in the rat. Kidney Int 54:1455–1462
Lucas A (1991) Programming by early nutrition in man. Ciba Found Symp 156:38–50
Lumey LH, Stein AD (1997) Offspring birth weights after maternal intrauterine undernutrition: a comparison within sibships. Am J Epidemiol 146:810–819
Mcmillen C, Robinson JS (2005) Developmental origins of the metabolic syndrome: prediction, plasticity, and programming. Physiol Rev 85:571–633
McNiece KL, Poffenbarger TS, Turner JL, Franco KD, Sorof JM, Portman RJ (2007) Prevalence of hypertension and pre-hypertension among adolescents. J Pediatr 150(6):640–644, 644.e1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2007.01.052)
Mittal BV, Singh AK (2010) Hypertension in the developing world: challenges and opportunities. Am J Kidney Dis 55:590–598
NCD Risk Factor Collaboration (NCD-RisC) (2021) Worldwide trends in hypertension prevalence and progress in treatment and control from 1990 to 2019: a pooled analysis of 1201 population-representative studies with 104 million participants. Lancet 398(10304):957–980
Neel JV (1962) Diabetes mellitus: a “thrifty” genotype rendered detrimental by “progress”? Am J Hum Genet 14:353–362
Ong M-L, Lin X, Holbrook JD (2015) Measuring epigenetics as the mediator of gene/environment interactions in DOHaD. J Dev Orig Health Dis 6:10–16
Painter RC, Roseboom TJ, Bleker OP (2005) Prenatal exposure to the Dutch famine and disease in later life: an overview. Reprod Toxicol 20:345–352
Pham TD, MacLennan NK, Chiu CT, Laksana GS, Hsu JL, Lane RH (2003) Uteroplacental insufficiency increases apoptosis and alters p53 gene methylation in the full-term IUGR rat kidney. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 285:R962–R970
Razak F, Anand SS, Shannon H, Vuksan V, Davis B, Jacobs R, Teo KK, McQueen M, Yusuf S (2007) Defining obesity cut points in a multiethnic population. Circulation 115:2111–2118
Singhal A, Cole TJ, Lucas A (2001) Early nutrition in preterm infants and later blood pressure: two cohorts after randomized trials. Lancet 357:413–419
Singhal A, Fewtrell M, Cole TJ, Lucas A (2003) Low nutrient intake and early growth for later insulin resistance in adolescents born preterm. Lancet 361:1089–1097
Song P, Zhang Y, Yu J, Zha M, Zhu Y, Rahimi K, Rudan I (2019) Global prevalence of hypertension in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatr 173(12):1154–1163. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2019.3310
STEPS. https://www.who.int/teams/noncommunicable-diseases/surveillance/systems-tools/steps. Accessed 30 Sept 2021
Thoman EB, Levine S (1970) Hormonal and behavioral changes in the rat mother as a function of early experience treatments of the offspring. Physiol Behav 5:1417–1421
Thrift AG, Srikanth V, Fitzgerald SM, Kalyanram K, Kartik K, Hoppe CC, Walker KZ, Evans RG (2010) Potential roles of high salt intake and maternal malnutrition in the development of hypertension in disadvantaged populations. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 37:e78–e90
Tiago AD, Samani NJ, Candy GP, Brooksbank R, Libhaber EN, Sareli P, Woodiwiss AJ, Norton GR (2002) Angiotensinogen gene promoter region variant modifies body size-ambulatory blood pressure relations in hypertension. Circulation 106:1483–1487
Transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda. Accessed 30 Sept 2021
Uiterwaal CS, Anthony S, Launer LJ, Witteman JC, Trouwborst AM, Hofman A, Grobbee DE (1997) Birth weight, growth, and blood pressure: an annual follow-up study of children aged 5 through 21 years. Hypertension 30(2 Pt 1):267–271
UNICEF & WHO (2019) UNICEF-WHO low birthweight estimates: levels and trends 2000–2015. World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/324783
UNICEF/WHO (2018) Levels and trends in childhood malnutrition/World Bank Group Joint Child Malnutrition Estimates Key findings of the 2018 edition. https://www.who.int/nutgrowthdb/2018-jme-brochure.pdf
UNICEF-WHO low birthweight estimates: levels and trends 2000–2015. WHO-NMH-NHD 19.21.-eng pdf. Accessed 30 Sept 2021
Unwin N, Harland J, White M, Bhopal R, Winocour P, Stephenson P, Watson W, Turner C, Alberti KG (1997) Body mass index, waist circumference, waist-hip ratio, and glucose intolerance in Chinese and Europid adults in Newcastle, UK. J Epidemiol Community Health 51:160–166
Vehaskari VM, Aviles DH, Manning J (2001) Prenatal programming of adult hypertension in the rat. Kidney Int 59:238–245
von Bonsdorff ME, von Bonsdorff MB, Martikainen J, Salonen M, Kajantie E, Kautiainen H, Eriksson JG (2016) Body size at birth and coronary heart disease-related hospital care in adult men – findings from the Helsinki Birth Cohort Study. Ann Med 23:1–16
Waddington CH (1957) The strategy of the genes: a discussion of some aspects of theoretical biology. Macmillan, New York
Wang Z, Wu Y, Zhao L, Li Y, Yang J, Zhou B, Cooperative Research Group of the Study on Trends of Cardiovascular Diseases in China and Preventive Strategy for the 21st Century (2004) Trends in prevalence, awareness, treatment and control of hypertension in the middle-aged population of China, 1992–1998. Hypertens Res 27:703–709
West-Eberhard MJ (2003) Developmental plasticity and evolution. Oxford University Press, New York
Whelton PK, Carey RM, Aronow WS, Casey DE Jr, Collins KJ, Dennison Himmelfarb C et al (2018) ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA guideline for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and Management of High Blood Pressure in adults: executive summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association task force on clinical practice guidelines. Hypertension 71(6):1269–1324. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYP.0000000000000066
Whincup P, Cook D, Papacosta O, Walker M (1995) Birth weight and blood pressure: cross sectional and longitudinal relations in childhood. BMJ 311:773–776
WHO-CHOICE. https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/who-choice-frequently-asked-questions. Accessed 30 Sept 2021
Wing MR, Devaney JM, Joffe MM, Xie D, Feldman HI, Dominic EA et al (2014) Chronic renal insufficiency cohort (CRIC) study. DNA methylation profile associated with rapid decline in kidney function: findings from the CRIC study. Nephrol Dial Transplant 29:864–872
Woods LL, Ingelfinger JR, Nyengaard JR, Rasch R (2001) Maternal protein restriction suppresses the newborn renin-angiotensin system and programs adult hypertension in rats. Pediatr Res 49:460–467
World Health Organization (2009) Global health risks: mortality and burden of disease attributable to selected major risks. World Health Organization, Geneva
World Health Organization (2017) Tackling NCDs: ‘best buys’ and other recommended interventions for the prevention and control of noncommunicable diseases. World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/259232. Accessed 30 Sept 2021
Yach D (2004) The global burden of chronic disease: overcoming impediments to prevention and control. JAMA 291:2616–2622
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Section Editor information
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this entry
Cite this entry
Koch, V.H. (2022). Hypertension in the Developing World. In: Flynn, J.T., Ingelfinger, J.R., Brady, T. (eds) Pediatric Hypertension. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-31420-4_31-2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-31420-4_31-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-31420-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-31420-4
eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine
Publish with us
Chapter history
-
Latest
Hypertension in the Developing World- Published:
- 12 April 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-31420-4_31-2
-
Original
Hypertension in the Developing World- Published:
- 04 January 2017
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-31420-4_31-1