1 Digital Technologies for Sustainable Municipal Transport Systems

Over the past century, technological progress has created and improved many forms of mobility, causing a constant rise in distance travelled per person (Schäfer 2017). However, the mobility system that emerged does not cater equally to the needs of all (Pooley 2016). Nowadays, Big Data, software solutions and novel (connectivity) hardware have become central digital tools for innovation and progress across all areas of society. In the field of mobility, they have, for example, enabled the combination of different transport modes for a particular trip via multimodal platforms and an increase in efficiency for existing applications.

In order to ensure that the use of these technologies is citizen-oriented and directed at societal goals, political guidance is required. The objectives set by political action are thus instrumental to shaping paths for the development of digital solutions. In particular, funding of innovation and investment projects in the realm of digitalisation can contribute to multiple objectives, including societal ones. As summarised in Fig. 1, digitalisation can contribute to at least four societal objectives in the field of mobility, wherein the availability of data and cooperative systems presents a prerequisite for the application of many digital solutions, and can, together with advancements in automation and connectivity technologies, serve to enhance the contribution of digitalisation toward these goals. The set of objectives and the prioritisation among them are, of course, subject to change as the societal and political focus shifts. For example, while resilience was never a political focus area until recently, it has gained substantial attraction as a political objective over the past two to three years. The need for this has been particularly emphasised in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, which has highlighted the importance of the ability to adapt to new situations and recover from setbacks quickly. At the same time, integrating aspects of inclusiveness not only into everyday life but also into policies is becoming increasingly more important as diversity is a vital element of an adaptive and innovative society (Llopis 2019).

Fig. 1.
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Building on cooperative systems and the increasing availability of (mobility) data, digitalisation measures can contribute to societal objectives.

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In recent years, digital technologies and apps have further become essential tools in addressing the growing urgency of achieving sustainability goals. However, in the course of this digital transformation, inclusiveness and accessibility, major aspects of sustainability, have rarely been amongst the highest priorities. Sustainability does not only pertain to the reduction of the impact of human activities on the environment, but also focuses on social equity and economic feasibility. In a sustainable transformation of society, both its impacts and the social dimension need to be considered, even though they are often not addressed in transition strategies. The potential unemployment and increase in costs are just two examples of consequences that can (and should) be averted when devising balanced, just and systemic approaches that put forward innovative solutions addressing environmental issues and that ensure no one is left behind. To foster social equity in the mobility sector, different aspects of inclusiveness must be taken into account. The transformation of public transportation and reductions of usage costs as well as the improvement and expansion of cycling infrastructures are two examples of inclusive and equitable measures. These minimise community segregation while also reducing urban air pollution levels and contributing to climate change mitigation. However, these do not address the challenges faced by people with visual impairments or those with language barriers. In order to reach the societal and political objective of providing affordable mobility to every member of society and to meet the everyday mobility needs of all, the mobility system must be improved in all aspects, including the modernisation of physical infrastructure.

To address such issues, inclusiveness has been made a general objective in many political agendas across Europe and there is a general growing awareness of its importance. However, it was not until recently that it started to be considered an important aspect to be addressed in sustainability strategies that were once directed primarily, if not exclusively, at achieving particular environmental targets. Nowadays, there is a growing number of different projects that, although not initially conceptualised to address inclusiveness, have succeeded in strengthening the social pillar of sustainability and have indeed contributed to making transport systems more inclusive. The end-effect of these projects can, however, be significantly increased if the aspect of inclusiveness is addressed specifically, and ideally already during the planning phase of the projects, by making use of the right tools.

Digital transformation and digitalisation of systems are seldom oriented towards inclusiveness alone. In the following chapter, we will identify some digitalisation measures that were not specifically developed to support a more inclusive society, but have the potential to do so or are indeed already indirectly contributing. Overall, in this paper, we address in particular the challenges vulnerable groups face in this digital transformation and identify the potential of digital tools to contribute to improved inclusiveness.

1.1 Defining Inclusiveness

Before describing and analysing the main efforts being performed in Germany and in particular their (potential) contribution to improving inclusiveness, it is instructive to recall the objective of inclusiveness first: According to the Cambridge Dictionary (2022), the term ‘inclusiveness’ is defined as “the quality of including many different types of people and treating them all fairly and equally.” Further, Niemann (2019) defines the term of inclusiveness as “the right to be there,” meaning that all citizens, including those considered vulnerable users, should have the opportunity to actively participate and to be included as users in all areas of life.

Depending on the context, the definition of vulnerable persons differs widely. The European Parliament for example describes vulnerable adults as persons with severe physical or mental disabilities as well as elderly people who may be limited due to age-related illnesses (EU Parliament 2022). Focusing on vulnerability within the mobility sector, here we follow the definition put forward by the Inclusive Digital Mobility Solutions (INDIMO) project, which identifies vulnerable-to-exclusion individuals as those facing physical, cognitive or socio-economic barriers (INDIMO 2021).

The European Commission published the Strategy for the Rights of Persons with Disabilities 2021–2030 with the goal of enabling people with disabilities to fully take part in society, shaping a fairer and more inclusive Europe (EU Commission 2021). However, many other citizens could also be affected by a lack of accessibility and inclusiveness in various aspects of their everyday life. For instance, with respect to mobility, a parent travelling with their child in a stroller or an elderly person with mobility impairments might not be able to access public transport modes due to physical barriers such as stairs.

1.2 Addressing Inclusiveness

In response to the lack of accessibility, local associations committed to social causes have attempted to address this issue. An example of this is a Berlin-based initiative that allows volunteering participants to record whether or not locations are wheelchair-accessible (Emmett 2021). Collected information on the accessibility of locations is provided to users free of charge while the responsible transport associations or developers are urged to improve accessibility in those locations that were deemed inaccessible.

1.3 Inclusive and Accessible Mobility in Germany

The German government formed in 2021 pledges to “enable sustainable, accessible, innovative mobility catering to the everyday needs of and affordable for all” (SPD, Bündnis 90/Die Grünen, FDP 2021) and points to digital technologies as key elements of innovation for all transport modes.

With respect to accessibility as one component of an inclusive mobility system, societal and political objectives have already been adopted into German law concerning public transport infrastructure. For many modes of transport, physical infrastructure directly determines the level of accessibility and has thus been addressed by policy makers working toward an inclusive mobility system. In Germany, an amendment was made to the German Passenger Transportation Act (in German: “Personenbeförderungsgesetz”) on January 1, 2013 in line with the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (BMJ 2021). According to Sect. 8, local transport plans must take into account the needs of people with reduced mobility or sensory impairments. The aim of which is achieving complete accessibility for the use of local public transport by January 1, 2022. However, with plausible argumentation specifically disclosed in local transportation plans, some exceptions were granted to municipalities that could not meet the deadline stipulated by this act. This was the case for many municipalities and therefore full accessibility has not yet been achieved in many local public transport systems despite the deadline having passed. For instance, 78% of Berlin’s 175 subway stations are currently step-free (BVG 2022a). While this seems like a notable number, it also means that more than one in five stations is not accessible for certain passengers, including wheelchair users. In this regard, Hamburg is far ahead of Berlin with 95% of its subway stations being accessible (Hochbahn AG 2022). Meanwhile, among the German cities of over a million inhabitants, Munich leads the implementation rate with 100% of its subway stations being step-free (MVG 2022). Yet, step-free access to subway stations is only one aspect of accessibility and the delayed implementation of the requirements stipulated by the law serves to underline the lack of prioritisation of inclusiveness in the past. In most municipalities, there is, therefore, still a long way to go before full accessibility is reached.

1.4 The Impact of Digitalisation on an Inclusive Mobility Sector

Meanwhile, the digital layer of mobility systems has become increasingly important for the accessibility and inclusiveness of the system and can provide faster-to-implement solutions. Digital tools can also serve to provide alternatives while long-term physical infrastructure measures are completed and can sometimes even make planned measures superfluous. At the same time, it must not be forgotten that the expansion of the digital layer of the mobility system also adds a new potential usage barrier. With the vision of an inclusive society, several European programmes have thus been launched to assure that the majority of the European population acquires basic digital skills by the year 2030 (EU Commission). Despite the progress seen in recent years, the large majority of the global and European population are still not ready for a fully digital society (EU Commission 2022; OECD 2022). At the same time, it is understood that the current technological development and emergence of new digital tools has been crucial for an enhanced inclusiveness of transportation modes. This ongoing digital transformation of systems empowers a variety of sustainable innovations not only related to traffic control, increase of road safety and upgrading of public transport infrastructure, to name a few examples, but could also play a key role in the promotion of inclusive mobility. When supplementing and improving traditional transportation means with innovative digital solutions, it is important to safeguard the inclusiveness of such processes. For example, the development of automated driving technologies, on the one hand, offers the opportunity to be more independent to people with certain disabilities that would otherwise need assistance when traveling. Full autonomous vehicles with guaranteed inclusiveness standards have the potential to be highly advantageous to several vulnerable groups in society, such as elderly people or those with other disabilities, or people that simply do not hold a driving license. On the other hand, digital applications became essential for the improvement of inclusiveness in shared mobility means (e.g. car sharing and on-demand transport), public transportation, and active mobility modes. Examples of this include not only the support of navigation to reach destinations in an effective and secure way, but also those that offer the possibility of different ticketing possibilities (e.g. easy and contactless payment, comprehensible and valid for multi-modal trips, etc.).

Nonetheless, there are many cases in which digital solutions exclude rather than include certain vulnerable groups of society. For instance, apps that are designed without all potential users in mind may not be screen-reader friendly and thus, are not usable for some users with, for example, visual impairments or people that are not digital natives.

2 Digitalisation of Transport Systems in Germany

Funding programmes should foster and encourage activity and investment in areas of high societal relevance and the prioritisation of funded topics should reflect the urgency with which the issues at hand should be addressed. As detailed above, inclusiveness has gained significant momentum with respect to both thematic relevance and urgency over the past years, as shortcomings of current (public) transport systems have become more apparent and as the topic has risen on the political agenda in response to an increased awareness in our society (DIMR 2019). In the following, an overview of major digitalisation measures to improve the efficiency and reduce the environmental impact of mobility systems funded by the German government in recent years is presented. The focus is placed on key areas in which inclusiveness is addressed by these measures, namely: data collection, barrier-free digital platforms and apps, acoustic and visual passenger information as well as traffic management. The overview provides a basis for the subsequent identification of synergies between the different objectives of digitalisation measures as well as for the derivation of recommendations for a systematic approach that maximises contributions to as many objectives as possible, even if one of these is a clear priority for a particular programme.

2.1 Digital Technologies for Health (Clean Air Policies) and Climate Protection

In 2017, the digital layer of mobility systems was identified by the German government as a point of action for a short-term improvement of air quality. Air pollution episodes, namely in urban areas, are a main cause for premature mortalities. Consequently, the European Air Quality Directive on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe sets standards for several air pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and particulate matter (PM). To comply with these thresholds, several measures were implemented in the past decade with the goal of reducing air pollutant emissions from different sources. In this context, and aligned with the overall European trend, the immediate action programme “Sofortprogramm Saubere Luft 2017–2020” (in English: Immediate Action Programme Clean Air) was launched in 2017 by the German government with the goal of improving air quality in the 90 German municipalities that had, at the time, persistent exceedances of, in particular, NO2 standard levels (above the European Air Quality Standard of 40 µg/m3, as yearly average value). To alleviate air pollution, the programme consisted of three core areas:

  • Electrification (740 million euros),

  • Digitalisation (650 million euros), and

  • Hardware retrofitting for public transport diesel buses (107 million euros).

The implementation of the immediate action programme was divided between different ministries and funding programmes, but action plans for improved air quality (“Green City Plans”) were required to ensure that a systemic approach was adopted in each city and to maximise the effectiveness of the measures with respect to a short-term reduction of emissions and their effects on human health and the environment. This nationwide German initiative endorsed a broad variety of projects, with the great majority oriented towards electrification of public transport fleets as well as a general modernisation of the mobility sector by making use of innovative digital tools to, for example, promote cycling in cities, by creating faster, safer and easier transportation means. For an effective transition to a sustainable mobility sector, it is crucial that strategy plans contemplate not only the fleet of private vehicles but also focus on the development of alternative mobility modes such as increased use of public transportation or active mobility, i.e. cycling and walking.

The funding budget of 650 million euros in the digitalisation branch of the immediate action programme was administered by the Federal Ministry for Digital and Transport (BMDV) and implemented in the programme Digitalisation of Municipal Transport Systems (in German: “Digitalisierung kommunaler Verkehrssysteme”; DkV) focusing on the promotion of sustainable mobility concepts, with a main orientation towards both the digitalisation of the mobility sector and also strengthening modal shifts in urban environments. With a base funding rate of 50%, recipients of funds from the programme had to match the investment by the German government, so that the overall investment for the digitalisation of transport systems was well above one billion Euro.

The “Green City Plans” concept provides the basis for municipalities’ funding applications under the DkV programme. These plans set out a strategic vision for the transformation of urban mobility by making use of integrative approaches that would not only provide solutions for improving urban air quality, but would also shape the overall transportation sector. In doing so, municipal projects make use of digital tools to achieve their long-term goal of becoming more sustainable. Several cities conceived their “Green City Plans” according to the eight principles for Sustainable Urban Mobility Planning (SUMP), a concept defined by the European Commission as part of the Urban Mobility Package. These principles include the development of all transport modes in an integrated manner and, importantly for the context of this article, the involvement of all citizens and stakeholders (Observatory 2021). The ensuing digital transformation has the potential to completely transform the urban environment and improve the life of citizens.

Sustainable mobility plans include many different strategies and creating an attractive network of public transportation is an essential measure to captivate passengers and persuade citizens to reduce usage of private vehicles. A great share of the projects financed within the DkV programme have profited from digital progress and resulted in not only the refurbishment and upgrade of public transport systems themselves, but also of the linked infrastructure. Transformation and modernisation were not only needed in physical infrastructure but especially in the creation of innovative tools that nowadays support and facilitate the life of passengers and cyclists. Indeed, one other important category of implemented measures are those promoting active mobility modes, such as cycling and walking. By turning cycling into a safer, easier and possibly even the fastest transport mode, citizens are more motivated to change their behaviour and use bikes as a means of transportation. In the context of physical infrastructure modernisations, many cities and Hamburg in particular are planning ahead and considering a future of automated driving in their transportation planning. This mainly includes modernisations of traffic light systems, which will enable vehicle-to-everything (V2X) applications (Hamburg 2022). These measures will be especially beneficial for certain vulnerable groups who currently lack independent mobility, but will gain autonomy once autonomous vehicles can safely drive on the road.

Digital tools can also advance the electrification of vehicle fleets, a fast growing trend in recent years and one of the first sustainable solutions considered when designing policy plans to address urban air pollution. Technology developments and widespread digitalisation in industry have been crucial in accelerating the recent transformation of the mobility sector. Digital tools are not only important to manage charging infrastructure but also, for example, assist in the management of electric bus fleets or e-scooters deployed in cities. For example, one of the DkV projects aims to create a virtual net of decentralised charging infrastructure for inner-city public transport by cabs and other (shared) electric transport modes in Dortmund (Dortmund 2022). Multiple cities, including Bonn, Munich and Hamburg, also took advantage of the funding programme to optimise the charging system for their electric bus fleets, in order to improve the availability of the vehicles and to thereby further strengthen the public transport system and its resilience. Meanwhile, e-scooters play an increasing role in first and last mile transport and thus expand the reach of the public network and encourage citizens to switch from their private motorised vehicles to public transportation. When considering the urban logistics and all it entails in current times, apps facilitate not only the management by the delivery companies themselves, but also offer the possibility for recipients to control and check the location of their package and delivery time.

Apps, as one example, be it on a computer or smartphone, are a common ground and key technology in all of these aspects. Such tools nowadays are essential to ensure the smooth functioning of the mobility sector. Yet, the digital transformation of the mobility sector does not rely only on this format and there are many other changes happening at different fronts that are transforming the sector. However, these same tools can also become barriers and create everyday challenges for many citizens when they are poorly designed and not inclusive to all potential users. Here we explore how this modernisation process and all the deployed tools can improve and promote inclusiveness in a digital society based on projects within the DkV funding programme.

3 Potential for Improving Inclusiveness in the Mobility Sector

As previously mentioned, inclusiveness has not generally been accounted for from early stages in the large majority of sustainable mobility oriented policies or conceived projects. Nevertheless, the aspect of accessibility has been addressed by a number of DkV projects. There are currently examples of thirteen projects in eight German cities aiming to directly contribute to the goal of increasing inclusiveness (Fig. 2). The number of such projects is likely to go up as proposals submitted in response to the latest DkV call (May 2022) are, among other criteria, evaluated by their contribution to other goals of the German federal government, such as inclusiveness and resilience in particular.

Fig. 2.
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Map with selected cities that received funding as part of the DkV funding programme of the German Federal Ministry for Digital and Transport (BMDV) for the projects discussed in this chapter.

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A common aspect covered in most projects that are currently being implemented is acoustic passenger information, both at stations through speakers and in screen-reader friendly apps. This is, of course, especially beneficial for people with visual impairments. Another point often addressed is step-free access to public transport vehicles, which is particularly crucial for wheelchair users. As a result of the implementation of these projects, public transportation systems have been positively transformed and made more accessible for many citizens. However, accessibility is not the only factor defining inclusiveness. While the introduction of such services and their corresponding apps is a valuable measure to make public transport more attractive, providers seem to often disregard the importance of the accessibility of the apps themselves.

Still, the digital transformation of the mobility sector holds the potential of improvement in many areas, serving not only transport and transit means but also users of those, i.e., the passengers. This section presents a variety of examples of projects that by addressing digital transformation also promote inclusiveness in the mobility sector.

Here, the focus is on projects that were part of the abovementioned German DkV initiative (from the German name: “Digitalisierung kommunaler Verkehrssysteme”) and the classification follows the four main categories of actions that were considered and deployed within this funding programme, (see Fig. 3).

Fig. 3.
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The four main areas of inclusive digital transformation of the mobility sector within the DkV programme.

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Data Collection

In order to meet the needs of all citizens, these needs must first be known. Increasing levels of detail concerning the diverse needs and expectations allow for the provision of mobility services tailored to those needs. Since digitalisation and data collection are co-dependent, the initial step of all digitalisation efforts for the mobility sector in all German cities and regions is always the investigation of mobility behaviours. Besides the specific measures with a clearly identifiable contribution to inclusiveness detailed above, the most significant contribution of (funded) digital mobility projects in the long-term will most probably stem from a precise knowledge of (aggregate) mobility needs. All cities that devised a “Green City Plan” for a sustainable mobility system have replaced or are currently replacing manual traffic census with digital and automatic procedures that allow for a manifold increase in temporal coverage and granularity of transport usage patterns (passenger count for public transport or vehicle identification and counting for road systems). Funding from the DkV programme was used by many municipalities to install city-wide sensor networks to accomplish these tasks. This data should prove helpful in conceiving and implementing future measures. For the introduction of new modes and offers, user needs, transport options and the optimisation of city traffic need to be matched in the interest of sustainability goals. With respect to inclusiveness, it must be ensured that data for minority groups is also collected and included in planning steps, since a focus on the needs of the majority would once again leave many individuals behind.

Barrier-Free Digital Platforms and Apps

On the basis of the collected data, accessible, comprehensive, transparent and non-discriminatory mobility platforms can be developed. Apps available on smartphones have a multitude of advantages for the use of public transport. The recent digital transformation of the sector and the deployment of many apps have contributed to an improvement of accessibility to public transportation means, by for example offering the information of accessibility of the stations and transport modes. Easier access to public transportation promotes its usage and leads to the increase of the number of passengers. Still, users of vulnerable groups, be it people with disabilities, foreigners that cannot understand the language in which the app is provided, or citizens with low digital skills, are often not considering in the development process of these apps.

Moreover, these platforms should include all mobility providers and all mobility modes. The city of Krefeld in the West of Germany in particular provides a mobility platform which offers ride and travel assistance through an accessible, voice-controlled user interface. In addition, a Bluetooth-based guidance system ensures barrier-free access to buses and trains. Combined with technical equipment in vehicles and buildings, this platform enables direct interaction with vehicles and location-based services. Overall, Krefeld’s mobility platform offers a barrier-free assistance system that allows for easy navigation and orientation for both the visually impaired and those unfamiliar with the area.

A multimodality app that harmonises the ticketing and travel information across cities and regions served by different public transportation companies can be helpful to all passengers, and even more to vulnerable users such as elderly citizens. Still, it is important that the app itself is simplified so that users with basic digital skills do not face challenges. The city of Augsburg, for example, is developing a mobility app that combines public transport, car-sharing, and bike-sharing services and thus enables multimodal route planning and simplified billing. In a further implementation stage, the billing function will be supplemented by a “check-in/check-out” function. By combining multiple services in one app, barriers to using public transportation are broken down and the attractiveness of the mobility service is thus increased.

In fact, many apps nowadays provide a large amount of information on stations and stops, namely how accessible they are to people with particular disabilities. In this setting, on-demand transport systems that use barrier-free and inclusive vehicles can also serve to enhance the accessibility and reach of public transport networks, such as those offered in at least two German cities: Berlin (BerlKönig) and Hamburg (Ioki and VHH). The Digitaler Pendlerbus (Digital Commuter Bus, in English), also known as the BerlKönig BC, also functioned as a barrier-free on-demand ridesharing service in Berlin at a price comparable to that of a standard public transport ticket (BVG 2022b). This service was meant to be an extension to the existing public transport system, however, certain vulnerable user groups also benefitted from the service by simply indicating that they require an accessible vehicle during the booking process in the app. At the same time, this type of on-demand service is also beneficial for users living in rural areas who gain better public transport links. This effect could be increased, especially with the introduction of autonomous on-demand shuttles that do not require a human driver to be present anymore. Additionally, Berlin’s public transport provider is currently developing the Alternative Barrier-Free Transportation (in German: “Alternative Barrierefreie Beförderung”; ABB) which can be ordered via phone or app (BVG 2022c). This service offers a mobility guarantee for passengers who are dependent on accessibility on the subway, local and regional trains. It is especially useful at stations that are not yet barrier-free or where a lift is currently out of order or being modernised.

Other examples of mobility apps include those for mobile ticketing and cashless payment for public transportation, Park and Ride (P + R) as well as ridesharing. While these apps can be very convenient for able-bodied people and can increase their willingness to use more climate-friendly modes of transportation, they are oftentimes not as helpful for people with disabilities if implemented with limited or no accessibility. Meanwhile, vulnerable persons such as those with disabilities may be the ones who could potentially benefit from such services the most as they could achieve greater autonomy by using digital mobility solutions (Disabled Living 2019). For example, instead of attempting to navigate within a station and to find a physical ticket machine, people with visual impairments could simply purchase a ticket using their smartphone and voice recognition or a screen reader. However, a study by the Research Institute for Disabled Consumers found that 26% of people with disabilities face difficulties accessing or managing smartphone apps (RIDC 2020). Common barriers include complicated navigation links, missing or inaccurate alt text or gifs that could even cause epileptic seizures (Accessibility 2022).

Finally, delivery apps can provide an immense level of independence, particularly for those members of society who are unable to go shopping on their own. An example of this is the INDIMO pilot project conducted in Madrid which assesses a previously existent delivery platform for goods in regard to user experience and user needs (INDIMO 2022d). Especially elderly people face barriers in accessing solutions such as this one due to low digital skills. Based on the results, the platform should then be optimised in order to be more inclusive and accessible for vulnerable persons.

Visual and Acoustic Passenger Information

Amongst those DkV projects that set out inclusiveness as one of their key objectives, the majority addresses the introduction of visual and acoustic passenger information. Berlin’s public transport provider has incorporated a number of graphic elements in digital passenger information displays, which, for example, indicate whether subway cars are accessible for wheelchair users. Furthermore, passenger information is provided not only visually via text and icons on displays but also acoustically and in multiple languages. Thus, a multitude of public transport users, including foreigners, can perceive this information. In response, the local association for the blind expressed their support of the implementation of these components. Similar projects are being conducted in the German district cities of Limburg, where all indicators are being equipped with pushbuttons and connected to existing guidance systems for the blind, and Gross-Gerau, where text-to-speech software is used for announcements at stations.

Traffic Management

Last but not least, initiatives in the field of traffic management mainly focus on road transport sectors and most projects address traffic lights systems, and implementing different forecasting systems. Still, these, and namely the data collected from devices installed in these projects, can prove useful for other applications that promote a wider inclusiveness beyond improving the flow of traffic on roads. Traffic light system data and high-precision intersection maps are made available to other service providers. Subsequently, this can be used as basis for the development of apps and other platforms that serve non-motorised mobility users. The city of Hamburg, for example, is testing an app that informs drivers and cyclists whether the next traffic light will be red or green when they reach it. In the case of cars, emissions can thus be lowered as unnecessary speeding before red lights would be reduced. In terms of cycling, such apps can make the use of bicycles more appealing as cyclists know in advance whether to speed up a little or to take their time in order to reduce the waiting time traffic lights (Reutlingen, 2022). With this data already being collected in many cities, it would be fairly simple to take a step further and create apps that could, for example, help people with visual impairments cross the road safely. To implement this, the information of whether a traffic light is red or green could be provided in an accessible app. Additionally, intelligent traffic lights could prioritise traffic streams and adapt the length of green periods for people who may require some extra time to cross the road, as is being explored in the INDIMO pilot project in Antwerp (INDIMO 2022a).

The listed examples indicate that there is a clear, although far from inevitable, intrinsic link between increasing digitalisation and improved inclusiveness. Although the project examples from the DkV programme were designed to maximise contribution to the very urgent short-term objective of improving air quality – which they did successfully, considering that the number of German cities in which European air quality levels were exceeded has dropped significantly from 90 to below 10 between 2016 and 2021 – they also contributed to other societal goals, notably inclusiveness and thereby improving sustainability overall. The examples therefore demonstrate that digital solutions are a fundamental enabler for inclusive mobility systems, while also underlining that the extent of the contribution depends strongly on the timing and scope of the integration of inclusiveness in project planning.

4 Outlook

The digital transformation of society and particular sectors is in full flow. This unlocks the potential for the improvement of the lives of many citizens and could make Europe a frontrunner in reaching sustainability goals. Mobility in particular is a central enabler for an improved quality of life (Lee and Sener 2016) and the improvement of the reach and resilience of transport systems directly affects its inclusiveness. The digital layer of transport and mobility systems opens up many new applications and provides the necessary levels of versatility and redundancy to address diverse user needs. However, digitalisation does not yet equally affect everyone, with some vulnerable user groups seeing their needs neglected.

Ongoing measures have already led to visible improvements regarding accessibility in the mobility sector. While the presented projects cannot be considered best-practice examples for implementing inclusiveness as this was never their main objective, they do, however, demonstrate that digitalisation efforts bring with them a potential for enhanced inclusiveness that can be unlocked with comparably low effort once the necessary level of connectivity and the digital layer of hardware and software components have been established. Fuelling overall investments above one billion Euro in the digitalisation of municipal transport systems, the DkV funding programme discussed above has laid this groundwork of digitalisation in over 70 major cities in Germany. As presented, in some projects and cities, inclusiveness was already a secondary objective of the measures directed primarily at improving air quality, specifically projects focused on data collection, barrier-free platforms and apps, visual and acoustic passenger information and traffic management. Perhaps more importantly, each project has increased the level of digitalisation in the cities and thus provides the basis for future measures to improve inclusiveness of mobility systems, as the topic gains societal and thus political relevance. The step from digital mobility solutions to inclusive mobility is, of course, not a given and the former will only be achieved, if inclusiveness is indeed prioritised on the agendas of local, regional or (supra-)national governments. Furthermore, the earlier inclusiveness is considered in the planning of mobility projects, the larger their contribution will be in this regard.

The path to a fully inclusive digital transformation is still long and will not always be smooth. Nonetheless, increasing the inclusiveness of transport systems will come with many benefits, especially for certain vulnerable groups whom it could enable to reach a new level of independence. The added value goes beyond the technology in regards to social aspects, which may not always be acknowledged. While here the focus was inclusiveness of digital tools in the mobility sector alone, these notions can be observed in other sectors and many aspects related to everyday life of citizens. Lessons learned in the mobility sector could thus help improve other services, including everything that is nowadays done through apps or online in general, be it shopping, bank transactions or simply booking an appointment with a doctor. Ultimately, the overall quality and comfort of life of vulnerable persons could be drastically improved by acknowledging their needs. In light of this, it could prove helpful to create platforms for knowledge transfer across stakeholders and key actors, enabling the identification of efficient measures and implementation of policies for a transition to an inclusive digital society.

By acknowledging that a digital transformation has overarching impacts, solutions to address current lack of inclusiveness in whatever sector can be better designed. Holistic and systematic approaches have proven to be beneficial when addressing such complex topics as inclusiveness, which involves a variety of sectors and actors. Although there are already success stories in recent developments and innovation efforts, there is still room for improvement. Policies need to be designed in such a way to not target single objectives, but instead consider broader impacts, bringing benefits on various fronts. A set of policy guidelines is needed to assist in the implementation of sustainability measures and assure that the social component of sustainability strategies is considered. In view of this, funding programmes in particular should incorporate aspects of inclusiveness. By doing so, the importance of social sustainability is emphasised and its implementation ensured. A good example for this is the investment in improvement and modernisation of public transport systems that did not only target the reduction of air pollution and overall impacts on the environment, but made use of that opportunity to also promote social equity. Expansion of urban cycling infrastructures, even if mainly focused on the improvement of the health of residents and environmental benefits due to the subsequent modal shift, also aids in connecting communities and improving accessibility. Bringing city and transport planning together from the start is an approach aligned with the concept of smart cities, based on holistic development concepts aiming at making cities more efficient, technologically advanced, more environmentally friendly and socially inclusive. Another example is the concept utilised in designing Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans (SUMP), which are strategic and integrated approaches dealing with urban mobility (POLIS and Rupprecht Consult 2021). These plans aim at improving accessibility and promoting a shift towards sustainable mobility by advocating for seven principles of resilience, including inclusiveness. All of these initiatives are valuable and legitimate to improve inclusiveness in the mobility sector. Still, it is important not to forget to confer with end-users directly, especially those belonging to vulnerable groups, when developing digital mobility solutions to achieve inclusive and accessible tools, so that everyone’s needs can be considered and nobody is left behind.