Abstract
Ecology is a comparatively young field of natural sciences. It has gained considerable influence and popularity over the last five to six decades. In ecology, interactions between individuals and environmental factors but also among the individuals of a population play an important role. The understanding of forest ecology is important in itself and prepares the ground for sustainable forest management. A number of conceptual theories have been developed in ecology to explain observed phenomena such as the natural maintenance of species diversity in tropical forest ecosystems. These form the background to individual-based ecology and the quantitative methods described in this book are often used to test them or to develop new ones. Finally tree mechanics offer different insights on interaction processes and tree growth.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abetz P (1976) Beiträge zum Baumwachstum: Der \(h/d\)-Wert – mehr als ein Schlankheitsgrad! [On tree growth – \(h/d\) ratio – more than a measure of slenderness]. Forst- und Holzwirt 31:389–393
Abetz P, Klädtke J (2002) The target tree management system. Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt 121:73–82
Armas C, Ordiales R, Pugnaire FI (2004) Measuring plant interactions: a new comparative index. Ecology 85:2682–2686
Assmann E (1970) The principles of forest yield study. Studies in the organic production, structure, increment and yield of forest stands. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 506 p
Atkinson NJ, Urwin PE (2012) The interaction of plant biotic an abiotic stresses: from genes to the field. J Exp Bot 63:3523–3544
Begon M, Harper JL, Townsend CR (2006) Ecology: individuals, populations and communities, 3rd edn. Blackwell Science, Oxford, 1092 p
Bertness MD, Callaway R (1994) Positive interactions in communities. Trends Ecol Evol 9:191–193
Bohn FJ, Huth A (2017) The importance of forest structure to biodiversity-productivity relationships. R Soc Open Sci 4:160521
Brüchert F, Gardiner B (2006) The effect of wind exposure on the tree aerial architecture and biomechanics of Sitka spruce ( Picea sitchensis, Pinaceae). Am J Bot 93:1512–1521
Bulleri F, Bruno JF, Silliman BR, Stachowicz JJ (2016) Facilitation and the niche: implications for coexistence, range shifts and ecosystem functioning. Funct Ecol 30:70–78
Burschel P, Huss J (1997) Grundriss des Waldbaus [Outline of silviculture]. Parey Buchverlag, Berlin, 488 p
Burton PJ (1993) Some limitations inherent to static indices of plant competition. Can J For Res 23:2141–2152
Cade BS, Noon BR (2003) A gentle introduction to quantile regression for ecologists. Front Ecol Environ 8:412–420
Chase JM, Leibold MA (2003) Ecological niches: linking classical and contemporary approaches. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 216 p
Chesson P (2000) Mechanisms of maintenance of species diversity. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 31:343–366
Comita LS, Queenborough SA, Murphy SJ, Eck JL, Xu K, Krishnadas M, Beckman N, Zhu Y (2014) Testing predictions of the Janzen-Connell hypothesis: a meta-analysis of experimental evidence for distance- and density-dependent seed and seedling survival. J Ecol 102:845–856
Connell JH (1961) The influence of interspecific competition and other factors on the distribution of the barnacle Chthamalus stellat. Ecology 42:710–723
Connell JH (1971) On the role of natural enemies in preventing competitive exclusion in some marine animals and in rain forests. In: den Boer PJ, Gradwell GR (eds) Dynamics of populations. Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation, Wageningen, the Netherlands, pp 298–312
Daleo P, Iribarne O (2009) Beyond competition: the stress-gradient hypothesis tested in plant-herbivore interactions. Ecology 90:2368–2374
Damgaard C (2011) Measuring competition in plant communities where it is difficult to distinguish individual plants. Comput Ecol Softw 1:125–137
Darwin C (1859) The origin of species by means of natural selection or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. Murray, London, 576 p
de Wit CT (1960) On competition, vol 66. Verslagen van Landbouwkundige Onderzoekingen (Agricultural Research Reports), pp 1–82
Dean TJ (2004) Basal area increment and growth efficiency as functions of canopy dynamics and stem mechanics. For Sci 50:106–116
Dean TJ, Long JN (1986) Validity of constant-stress and elastic instability principles of stem formation in Pinus contorta and Trifolium pratense. Ann Bot 54:833–840
Dean TJ, Roberts SD, Gilmore DW, Maguire DA, Long JN, O’Hara KL, Seymore RS (2002) An evaluation of the uniform stress hypothesis based on stem geometry in selected North American conifers. Trees 16:559–568
Dean TJ, Jerez M, Cao QV (2012) A simple stand growth model based on canopy dynamics and biomechanics. For Sci 59:335–344
Díaz-Sierra R, Verwijmeren M, Rietkerk M, Resco de Dios V, Baudena M (2017) A new family of standardized and symmetric indices for measuring the intensity and importance of plant neighbour effects. Methods Ecol Evol 8:580–591
Duchesneau R, Lesage I, Messier C, Morin H (2001) Effects of light and intraspecific competition on growth and crown morphology of two size classes of understory balsam fir saplings. For Ecol Manag 140:215–225
Ettinger A, HilleRisLambers J (2017) Competition and facilitation may lead to asymmetric range shift dynamics with climate change. Glob Chang Biol 23:3921–3933
Falster DF, Westoby M (2003) Plant height and evolutionary games. Trends Ecol Evol 18:337–343
Fernández-Tschieder E, Binkley D (2018) Linking competition with growth dominance and production ecology. For Ecol Manag 414:99–107
Fichtner F, Härdle W, Bruelheide H, Kunz M, Li Y, von Oheimb G (2018) Neighbourhood interactions drive overyielding in mixed-species tree communities. Nat Commun 9:1144
Finke DL, Snyder WE (2008) Niche partitioning increases resource exploitation by diverse communities. Science 321:1488–1490
Ford ED (1975) Competition and stand structure in some even-aged plant monocultures. J Ecol 63:311–333
Freckleton RP, Watkinson AR (2001) Asymmetric competition between plant species. Funct Ecol 15:615–623
Gause GF (1934) The struggle for existence. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, 184 p
Gladwell M (2000) The tipping point: how little things can make a big difference. Abacus, New York, 288 p
Grassi G, Giannini R (2005) Influence of light and competition on crown and shoot morphological parameters of Norway spruce and silver fir saplings. Ann For Sci 62:269–274
Grime JP (1977) Evidence for the existence of three primary strategies in plants and its relevance to ecological and evolutionary theory. Am Nat 111:1169–1194
Guderle M, Bachmann D, Milcu A, Gockele A, Bechmann M, Fischer C, Roscher C, Landais D, Ravel O, Devidal S, Roy J, Gessler A, Buchmann N, Weigelt A, Hildebrandt A (2018) Dynamic niche partitioning in root water uptake facilitates efficient water use in more diverse grassland plant communities. Funct Ecol 32:214–227
Hale SE (2003) The effect of thinning intensity on the below-canopy light environment in a Sitka spruce plantation. For Ecol Manag 179:341–349
Hamilton GJ, Christie JM (1973) Construction and application of stand yield models. Forestry commission research and development paper, vol 96. Edinburgh, 120 p
Harper JL (1961) Approaches to the study of plant competition. Symp Soc Exp Biol 15:1–39
Hasenauer H (1997) Dimensional relationships of open-grown trees in Austria. For Ecol Manag 96:197–206
Huang Y, Chen Y, Castro-Izaguirre N, Baruffol M, Brezzi M, Lang A, Li Y, Härdtle W, von Oheimb G, Yang X, Liu X, Pei K, Both S, Yang B, Eichenberg D, Assmann T, Bauhus J, Behrens T, Buscot F, Chen X-Y, Chesters D, Ding B-Y, Durka W, Erfmeier A, Fang J, Fischer M, Guo L-D, Guo D, Gutknecht JLM, He J-S, He C-L, Hector A, Hönig L, Hu R-Y, Klein A-M, Kühn P, Liang Y, Li S, Michalski S, Scherer-Lorenzen M, Schmidt K, Scholten T, Schuldt A, Shi X, Tan M-Z, Tang Z, Trogisch S, Wang Z, Welk E, Wirth C, Wubet T, Xiang W, Yu M, Yu X-D, Zhang J, Zhang S, Zhang N, Zhou H-Z, Zhu C-D, Zhu L, Bruelheide H, Ma K, Niklaus PA, Schmid B (2018) Impacts of species richness on productivity in a large-scale subtropical forest experiment. Science 362:80–83
Hutchinson GE (1957) Concluding Remarks. Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol 22:415–427
Isbell F, Cowles J, Dee LE, Loreau M, Reich PB, Gonzalez A, Hector A, Schmid B (2018) Quantifying effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning across times and places. Ecol Lett 21:763–778
Janzen DH (1970) Herbivores and the number of tree species in tropical forests. Am Nat 104:501–528
Judson O (1994) The rise of the individual-based model in ecology. Trends Ecol Evol 9:9–14
Keddy PA (1989) Competition. Chapman and Hall, London, 552 p
Keddy PA (2017) Plant ecology: Origins, processes, consequences, 2nd edn. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 624 p
Kikuzawa K, Umeki K (1996) Effect of canopy structure on degree of asymmetry of competition in two forest stands in Northern Japan. Ann Bot 77:565–571
Kimmins JP (2004) Forest ecology - a foundation for sustainable management, 3rd edn. Pearson Education Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, 700 p
Kramer H (1988) Waldwachstumslehre [Forest growth and yield science]. Verlag Paul Parey, Hamburg and Berlin, 374 p
Kunstler G, Lavergne S, Courbaud B, Thuiller W, Vieilledent G, Zimmermann NE, Kattge J, Coomes DA (2012) Competitive interactions between forest trees are driven by species’ trait hierarchy, not phylogenetic or functional similarity: implications for forest community assembly. Ecol Lett 15:831–840
Langsæter A (1941) Om tynning i enaldret gran- og furuskog [About thinnings in even-aged spruce and pine forests]. Medd Nor Skogforsoksves 8:131–216
LeMay V, Pommerening A, Marshall P (2009) Spatio-temporal structure of multi-storied, multi-aged interior Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca) stands. J Ecol 97:1062–1074
Lichtenthaler HK (1996) Vegetation stress: an introduction to the stress concept in plants. J Plant Physiol 148:4–14
Lichtenthaler HK (1998) The stress concept in plants: an introduction. Ann N Y Acad Sci 851:187–198
Lin Y, Berger U, Grimm V, Quian-Ru J (2012) Differences between symmetric and asymmetric facilitation matter: exploring the interplay between the modes of positive and negative plant interactions. J Ecol 100:1482–1491
Lin Y, Berger U, Grimm V, Huth F, Weiner J (2013) Plant interactions alter the predictions of metabolic scaling theory. PLOS ONE 8:e57612
Lundqvist L, Elfving B (2010) Influence of biomechanics and growing space on tree growth in young Pinus sylvestris stands. For Ecol Manag 260:2143–2147
MacArthur RH (1965) Patterns of species diversity. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 40:510–533
Maestre FT, Callaway RM, Valladares F, Lortie CJ (2009) Refining the stress-gradient hypothesis for competition and facilitation in plant communities. J Ecol 97:199–205
Matias MG, Combe M, Barbera C, Mouquet N (2013) Ecological strategies shape the insurance potential of biodiversity. Front Microbiol 3:432
Mattheck C, Breloer H (1994) The body language of trees – a handbook for failure analysis. HMSO, London
Messier C, Puettmann KJ, Coates KD (2013) Managing forests as complex adaptive systems. Building resilience to the challenge of global change. Routledge, Oxon, 353 p
Metslaid M, Jõgiste K, Nikinmaa E, Moser WK, Porcar-Castell A (2007) Tree variables related to growth response and acclimation of advance regeneration of Norway spruce and other coniferous species after release. For Ecol Manag 250:56–63
Metzger K (1893) Der Wind als maßgebender Faktor für das Wachstum der Waldbäume [Wind as a crucial factor for the growth of forest trees]. Mündener Forstliche Hefte 3:35–86
Mitchell SJ (2000) Stem growth responses in Douglas fir and Sitka spruce following thinning: implications for assessing windfirmness. For Ecol Manag 135:105–114
Morowitz HJ (1968) Energy flow in biology. Academic Press, New York, 234 p
Murphy SJ, Xu K, Comita LS (2016) Tree seedling richness, but not neighbourhood composition, influences insect herbivory in a temperate deciduous forest community. Ecol Evol 6:6310–6319
Niklas KJ, Spatz H-Ch (2004) Growth and hydraulic (not mechanical) constraints govern the scaling of tree height and mass. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:15661–15663
Nilson A (1973) Hooldusraiete arvutusliku projekteerimise teooriast [On the theory of programming thinnings]. EPA teaduslike tööde kogumik 89:136–142
Nilson A (2006) Modeling dependence between the number of trees and mean tree diameter of stands, stand density and stand sparsity. In: Cieszewski CC, Straub M (eds) Proceedings of the second international conference on forest measurements and quantitative methods and management & The 2004 southern mensurationists meeting. Athens GA, pp 74–94
Oliver CD, Larson BC (1996) Forest stand dynamics, Update edn. Wiley, New York, 520 p
Otto H-J (1994) Waldökologie [Forest ecology]. Ulmer, Stuttgart, 391 p
Perry DA, Oren R, Hart SC (2008) Forest ecosystems, 2nd edn. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 632 p
Philip MS (1994) Measuring trees and forests, 2nd edn. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, 310 p
Piao T, Comita LS, Jin G, Kim JH (2013) Density dependence across multiple life stages in a temperate old-growth forest of northeast China. Oecologia 172:207–217
Pierik R, Mommer L, Voesenek LACJ (2013) Molecular mechanisms of plant competition: neighbour detection and response strategies. Funct Ecol 27:841–853
Pommerening A, Sánchez Meador AJ (2018) Tamm review: tree interactions between myth and reality. For Ecol Manag 428:164–176
Pommerening A, Uria-Diez J (2017) Do large trees tend towards high species mingling? Ecol Inform 42:139–147
Pommerening A, Pallarés Ramos C, Kȩdziora W, Haufe J (2018) Rating experiments in forestry: how much agreement is there in tree marking? PLOS ONE 13:e0194747
Pretzsch H (1996) Erfassung des Pflegezustandes von Waldbeständen bei der zweiten Bundeswaldinventur [Monitoring forest management in the second national forest inventory of Germany]. AFZ/DerWald 15:820–823
Pretzsch H (2006) Species-specific allometric scaling under self-thinning: Evidence from long-term plots in forest stands. Oecologia 146:572–583
Pretzsch H (2009) Forest dynamics, growth and yield: From measurement to model. Springer, Heidelberg, 664 p
Pretzsch H (2010) Re-evaluation of allometry: state-of-the-art and perspective regarding individuals and stands of woody plants. In: Lüttge U, Beyschlag W, Nüdel B, Francis D (eds) Progress in Botany, vol 71. Springer, Heidelberg, pp 339–369
Pretzsch H, Biber P (2005) A re-evaluation of Reineke’s rule and stand density index. For Sci 51:304–320
Pretzsch H, Biber P (2016) Tree species mixing can increase maximum stand density. Can J For Res 46:1179–1193
Rajala T, Olhede SC, Murrell DJ (2018) When do we have the power to detect biological interactions in spatial point patterns? J Ecol 107:711–721
Read J, Stokes A (2006) Plant biomechanics in an ecological context. Am J Bot 93:1546–1565
Reineke LH (1933) Perfecting a stand-density index for even-aged forests. J Agric Res 46:627–638
Röhrig E, Bartsch N, von Lüpke B (2006) Waldbau auf ökologischer Grundlage [Silviculture on an ecological basis]. Verlag Eugen Ulmer Stuttgart, Stuttgart, 479 p
Scheffer M, Carpenter SR (2003) Catastrophic regime shifts in ecosystems: linking theory to observation. Trends Ecol Evol 18:648–656
Schmid B, Hector A, Saha P, Loreau M (2008) Biodiversity effects and transgressive overyielding. J Plant Ecol 1:95–102
Schmidt M (2001) Prognosemodelle für ausgewählte Holzqualitätsmerkmale wichtiger Baumarten [Modelling timber quality of important tree species]. PhD thesis, Göttingen University, Göttingen, 302 p
Schoener TW (1974) Resource partitioning in ecological communities. Science 185:27–39
Schütz JP (2001) Der Plenterwald und weitere Formen strukturierter und gemischter Wälder [The selection forest and other types os structured and mixed species forests]. Parey Buchverlag, Berlin, 207 p
Seifan T, Seifan M (2015) Symmetry and range limits in importance indices. Ecol Evol 5:4517–4522
Shaw JD, Long JN (2007) A density management diagram for longleaf pine stands. South J Appl For 31:28–38
Shinozaki K, Kira T (1956) Intraspecific competition among higher plants VII. Logistic theory of the C-D effect. J Inst Polytech Osaka City Univ D7:35–72
Skovsgaard JP, Vanclay JK (2008) Forest site productivity: a review of the evolution of dendrometric concepts for even-aged stands. Forestry 81:13–31
Smith WR, Farrar RM Jr, Murphy RA, Yeiser JL, Meldahl RS, Kush JS (1992) Crown and basal area relationships of open-grown southern pines for modelling competition and growth. Can J For Res 22:341–347
Spatz H-C, Brüchert F (2000) Basic biomechanics of self-supporting plants: Wind loads and gravitational loads on a Norway spruce tree. For Ecol Manag 135:33–44
Spiecker H (1994) Wachstum und Erziehung wertvoller Kirschen. [Growth and management of valuable cherry trees] Mitteilungen der Forstlichen Versuchs- und Forschungsanstalt Baden-Württemberg, vol 181. Freiburg, 92 p
Sterba H (1985) Das Ertragsniveau und der maximale Stand-Density-Index nach Reineke [Yield level and maximum stand density index according to Reineke]. Centralblatt für das gesamte Forstwesen 102:78–86
Sterba H (1987) Estimating potential density from thinning experiments and inventory data. For Sci 33:1022–1034
Sterba H (2010) Forstliche Ertragslehre [Forest growth and yield science]. Lecture notes. BOKU University Vienna, Vienna, 120 p
Stoyan D, Stoyan H (1994) Fractals, random shapes and points fields. Wiley, Chichester, 406 p
Suzuki SN, Kachi N, Suzuki J-I (2008) Development of local size hierarchy causes regular spacing of trees in an aven-aged Abies forest: analyses using spatial autocorrelation and the mark correlation function. Ann Bot 102:435–441
Thomas PA, Packham JR (2007) Ecology of woodlands and forests: description, dynamics and diversity. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 528 p
Tilman D (1982) Resource competition and community structure. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 310 p
Turnbull LA, Isbell F, Purves DW, Loreau M, Hector A (2016) Understanding the value of plant diversity for ecosystem functioning through niche theory. Proc R Soc B 283:20160536
van Laar A, Akça A (2007) Forest mensuration. Managing forest ecosystems, vol 13. Springer. Dordrecht, 383 p
Vogt J, Lin Y, Pranchai A, Frohberg P, Mehlig U, Berger U (2014) The importance of conspecific facilitation during recruitment and regeneration: a case study in degraded mangroves. Basic Appl Ecol 15:651–660
von Gadow K (1986) Observation on self-thinning in pine plantations. S Afr J Sci 82:364–368
von Gadow K, Bredenkamp B (1992) Forest management. Academia, Pretoria, 151 p
Vospernik S, Sterba H (2015) Do competition-density rule and self-thinning rule agree? Ann For Sci 72:379–390
Wang H, Peng H, Hui G, Hu Y, Zhao Z (2018) Large trees are surrounded by more heterospecific neighboring trees in Korean pine broad-leaved natural forests. Sci Rep 8:9149
Weiner J (1990) Asymmetric competition in plant populations. Trends Ecol Evol 5:360–364
Weiner J, Freckleton RP (2010) Constant final yield. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 41:173–192
Weiner J, Solbrig OT (1984) The meaning and measurement of size hierarchies in plant populations. Oecologia 61:334–336
Weiner J, Wright DB, Castro S (1997) Symmetry of below-ground competition between Kochia scoparia individuals. Oikos 79:85–91
Weiner J, Stoll P, Muller-Landau H, Jasentuliyana A (2001) The effects of density, spatial pattern, and competitive symmetry on size variation in simulated plant populations. Am Nat 158:438–450
Wills C, Condit R, Foster RB, Hubbell SP (1997) Strong density- and diversity-related effects help to maintain tree species diversity in a neotropical forest. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:1252–1257
Wright SJ (2002) Plant diversity in tropical forests: a review of mechanisms of species coexistence. Oecologia 130:1–14
Yachi S, Loreau M (1999) Biodiversity and ecosystem productivity in a fluctuating environment: the insurance hypothesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:1463–1468
Yao J, Zhang X, Zhang C, Zhao X, von Gadow K (2016) Effects of density dependence in a temperate forest in northeastern China. Sci Rep 6:32844
Yoda K, Kira T, Ogawa H, Hozumi K (1963) Self-thinning in overcrowded pure stands under cultivated and natural conditions. (Intraspecific competition among higher plants XI). J Inst Polytech Osaka City Univ Ser D 14:107–129
Zeide B (2005) How to measure density. Trees Struct Funct 19:1–4
Zeide B (2010) Comparison of self-thinning models: an exercise in reasoning. Trees Struct Funct 24:1117–1126
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Pommerening, A., Grabarnik, P. (2019). Theories and Concepts in Individual-Based Forest Ecology. In: Individual-based Methods in Forest Ecology and Management. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24528-3_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24528-3_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-24527-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-24528-3
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)