Skip to main content

Abstract

There are The Three Musketeers, The Three Sisters, and Three Men in a Boat. Jupiter dispenses three-forked lightning, Neptune has a three-pronged spear, and Pluto a three-headed dog. There are three Furies, three Harpies and three Graces; three classes of the Order of the Bath1, the Mysterious Three who sit on three thrones, and the Holy Trinity. And there are three molecules that deal with antigen diversity — T-cell receptors (Tcr), immunoglobulins (Ig), and major histocompatibility complex (Mhc) molecules.

Our experimental work has been supported, in part, by grant AI 23667 from the National Institute of Health, Bethesda, Maryland.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Andersson L, Sigurdardottir S, Borsch C, Gustafsson K (1991) Evolution of MHC polymorphism: extensive sharing of polymorphic sequence motifs between human and bovine DRB alleles. Immunogenetics 33:188 -193

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Begovich AB, Jones PP (1985) Free la chain expression in the E +α : E β recombinant strain A.TFR5. Immunogenetics 22:523–532

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bell JI, Denney D, Foster L, Belt T, Todd JA, McDevitt HO (1987) Allelic variation in the DR subregion of the human major histocompatibility complex. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 84:6234–6238

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Calabe F, Neuberger MS (eds) (1987) Molecular genetics of immunoglobulins. Elsevier, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter ATC (1987) Gene conversion, recombination, nodules, and the initiation of meiotic synapsis. Bioessays 6:232–236

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carroll RI (1988) Vertebrate paleontology and evolution. Freeman, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Drake JW (1970) The molecular basis of mutation. Holden-Day, Oakland

    Google Scholar 

  • Drake JW, Glickman BW, Ripley LS (1983) Updating the theory of mutation. Am Sci 71:621 -630

    Google Scholar 

  • Dupont B (ed) (1989) Histocompatibility testing 1987. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York (Immunology of the HLA, vol 1)

    Google Scholar 

  • Efstratiadis A, Posakony JW, Maniatis T, Lawn RM, O’Connell C, Spritz RS, DeRiel JK, Forget BG, Weissman SM, Slighton HL, Blechl AE, Smithies O, Baralle FE, Shoulder CC, Proudfoot NJ (1980) The structure and evolution of the human β-globin gene. Cell 21:653–668

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fan W, Kasahara M, Gutknecht J, Klein D, Mayer WE, Jonker M, Klein J (1989) Shared class II Mhc polymorphisms between human and chimpanzees. Hum Immunol 26:107–121

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Felsenstein J (1988) Phylogenies from molecule sequences: inference and reliability. Annu Rev Genet 22:521–565

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Figueroa F, Giinther E, Klein J (1988) Mhc polymorphism pre-dating speciation. Nature 335:265–267

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Figueroa F, Tichy H, Singleton G, Franguedakis-Tsolis S, Klein J (1989) High frequency of H-2EP alleles among wild mice. Immunogenetics 30:222–225

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flomenberg N (1989) Functional polymorphisms of HLA class II gene products detected by T lymphocyte clones: summary of the 10th International Histocompatibility Workshop Cellular Studies. In: Dupont B (ed) Histocompatibility testing 1987. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 532–550 (Immunobiology of HLA, vol 1)

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedberg EC (ed) (1985) DNA repair. Freeman, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Golding GB, Glickman BW (1981) Sequence-directed mutagenesis: evidence from a phylogenetic history of human a-interferon genes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 82:8577–8581

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Golding GB, Gearhart PJ, Glickman BW (1987) Patterns of somatic mutations in immunoglobulin variable genes. Genetics 115:169–176

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gorski J, Mach B (1986) Polymorphism of human la antigens: gene conversion between DR/? loci results in a new HLA-D/DR specificity. Nature 322:67–70

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Green PM, Montandon AJ, Bentley DR, Ljung R, Nilsson IM, Gianelli F (1990) The incidence and distribution of CpG-TpG transitions in the coagulation factor IX gene. A fresh look at CpG mutational hotspots. Nucleic Acids Res 18:3227–3231

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gyllenstein UB, Erlich HA (1988) Generation of single-stranded DNA by the polymerase chain reaction and its application to direct sequencing of the HLA-DQA locus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 85:7652–7656

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gyllenstein UB, Lashkari D, Erlich HA (1990) Allelic diversification at the class II DQB locus of the mammalian major histocompatibility complex. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87:1835–1839

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holmes N, Parham P (1985) Exon shuffling in vivo can generate novel HLA class I molecules. EMBO J 4:2849–2854

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes AL, Nei M (1988) Pattern of nucleotide substitutions at major histocompatibility complex class I loci reveals overdominant selection. Nature 335:167–170

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes AL, Nei M (1989 a) Ancient interlocus exon exchange in the history of the HLA-A locus. Genetics 122:681–686

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes AL, Nei M (1989b) Evolution of the major histocompatibility complex: independent origin of nonclassical class I genes in different groups of mammals. Mol Biol Evol 6:559–579

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Karr RW, Gregersen PK, Obata F, Goldberg D, Maccari J, Alber C, Silver J (1986) Analysis of DRyS and DQ£ chain cDNA clones form a DR7 haplotype. J Immunol 137:2886–2890

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kasahara M, Klein D, Fan W, Gutknecht J (1990) Evolution of the class II major histocompatibility complex alleles in higher primates. Immunol Rev 113:65–82

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kindt TJ, Capra JD (1984) The antibody enigma. Plenum, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein J (1978) H-2 mutations: their genetics and effect on immune functions. Adv Immunol 26:55–146

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klein J (1980) Generation of diversity at MHC loci: implications for T-cell receptor repertoires. In: Fougereau M, Dausset J (eds) Immunology 80. Academic, London, pp 239–253

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein J (1986) Natural history of the major histocompatibility complex. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein J (1987) Origin of major histocompatibility complex polymorphism: the trans-species hypothesis. Hum Immunol 19:155 -162

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klein J (1991) Of HLA, tryps, and selection: an essay on co-evolution of Mhc and parasites. Hum Immunol 30:247–258

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klein J, Figueroa F (1986) Evolution of the major histocompatibility complex. CRC Crit Rev Immunol 6:295–386

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klein J, Takahata N (1990) The major histocompatibility complex and the quest for origins. Immunol Rev 113:5–25

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klein J, Gutknecht J, Fischer N (1990a) The major histocompatibility complex and human evolution. Trends Genet 6:7–11

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klein J, Kasahara M, Mayer WE, Figueroa F (1990b) Do we come from Adam and Eve? What does the study of the major histocompatibility complex tell us about our origin? In: Clegg M, O’Brien S (eds) Molecular evolution. Liss, New York, pp 1–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein J, Kasahara M, Gutknecht J, Figueroa F (1990c) Origin and function of Mhc polymorphism. Chem Immunol 49:35–50

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klein J, Zhu Z, Gutknecht J, Figueroa F, Kasahara M (1990d) Mhc: lessons in evolution. In: Srivastava R (ed) Current concepts in immunogenetics. Verlag Chemie, Deerfield Beach, pp 18–37

    Google Scholar 

  • Kobori JA, Winoto A, McNicholas J, Hood L (1984) Molecular characterization of the recombination region of six murine major histocompatibility complex (MHC) I-region recombinants. J Mol Cell Immunol 1:125–131

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lafuse WP, David CS (1986) Recombination hot spots within the/region of the mouse H-2 complex map to the Ep and E a genes. Immunogenetics 24:352–360

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lafuse WP, Berg N, Savarirayan S, David CS (1986) Mapping of a second recombination hot spot within the I-E region of the mouse H-2 gene complex. J Exp Med 163:1518–1528

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lawlor DA, Ward FE, Ennis PD, Jackson AP, Parham P (1988) HLA-A and -B polymorphisms predate the divergence of humans and chimpanzees. Nature 335:268–271

    Google Scholar 

  • Low BK (ed) The recombination of genetic material. Academic, San Diego

    Google Scholar 

  • Lutz CT, Jensen DA, Schiffenbauer J, Didier DK, Schwartz BD, Davis CS (1990) Multiple mechanisms produce diversity of HLA-C alleles. Hum Immunol 28:27–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marsh SGE, Bodmer JG (1990) HLA-DRB nucleotide sequence 1990. Immunogenetics 31:141–144

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mason IL (ed) Evolution of domestic animals. Longman, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayer WE, Jonker M, Klein D, Ivanyi P, van Seventer G, Klein J (1988) Nucleotide sequences of chimpanzee MHC class I alleles: evidence for trans-species mode of evolution. EMBO J 7:2765–2774

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McConnell TJ, Talbot WS, Mclndoe RA, Wakeland EK (1988) The origin of MHC class II gene polymorphism within the genus Mus. Nature 332:651–654

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nathenson SG, Geliebter J, Pfaffenbach GM, Zeff RA (1986) Murine major histocompatibility complex class I mutants: molecular analysis and structure-function implications. Annu Rev Immunol 4:471–502

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nei M, Graur D (1984) Extent of protein polymorphism and the neutral mutation theory. Evol Biol 17:73–118

    Google Scholar 

  • Nei M, Roychoudhury AK (1982) Genetic relationships and evolution of human races. Evol Biol 14:1–59

    Google Scholar 

  • Parham P, Lawlor DA, Lomen CE, Ennis PD (1989) Diversity and diversification of HLA-A, B, C alleles. J Immunol 142:3937–3950

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Passmore HC, Kobori JA, Zimmerer EJ, Spinella DG, Hood L (1987) Molecular characterization of meiotic recombination within the major histocompatibility complex of the mouse. Mapping of crossover sites within the I region. Biochem Genet 25:513–526

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ripley LS (1982) Model for the participation of quasi-palindromic DNA sequences in frameshift mutation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 79:4128–4132

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ripley LS, Glickman BW (1982) Unique self-complementarity of palindromic sequences provides DNA structural intermediates for mutation. Cold Spring Harbor Symp Quant Biol 47:851–861

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saha BK, Gullen SE (1986) Molecular mapping of murine I region recombinants: crossing over the gene. J Immunol 136:1112–1116

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Santamaria P, Boyce-Jacino MT, Lindstrom AL, Barbösa J J, Faras A J, Rich SS (1991) Detection of novel sequence heterogeneity and haplotypic diversity of HLA class II genes. Immunogenetics 3:374–387

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shiroishi T, Sagai T, Moriwaki K (1982) A new wild-derived H-2 haplotype enhancing K-IA recombination. Nature 300:370–372

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sigurdardottir S, Borsch C, Gustafsson K, Andersson L (1991) Cloning and sequence analysis of 14 DRB alleles of the bovine MHC by using the polymerase chain reaction. Anim Genet 22 (in press)

    Google Scholar 

  • Simons MJ, Wheeler R, Cohen D, Lalonel J-M, Dupont B (1989) Restriction fragment length polymorphism of HLA genes: summary of the 10th International Workshop on Southern Blot Analysis. In: Dupont B (ed) Histocompatibility testing 1987. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 959–1023 (Immunobiology of HLA, vol 1)

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinmetz M, Minard K, Horvath S, McNicholas J, Freiinger J, Wake C, Long E, Mach B, Hood L (1982) A molecular map of the immune response region from the major histocompatibility complex of the mouse. Nature 300:35–42

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Steinmetz M, Stephan D, Fischer Lindahl K (1986) Gene organization and recombinational hotspots in the murine major histocompatibility complex. Cell 44:895–904

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Streisinger GY, Okada Y, Emrich J, Newton J, Tsugita A, Terzaghi E, Inouye M (1966) Frameshift mutations and the genetic code. Cold Spring Harbor Symp Quant Biol 31:77–84

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Toyonage B, Mak TW (1987) Genes of the T-cell antigen receptor in normal and malignant T cells. Annu Rev Immunol 5:585–620

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tykocinski MC, Max EE (1984) CG dinucleotide clusters in MHC genes and in 5’ demethylated genes. Nucleic Acids Res 12:4385–4396

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vincek V, Nizetic D, Golubic M, Figueroa F, Nevo E, Klein J (1987) Evolutionary expansion of MHC class I loci in the mole-rat, Spalax ehrenbergi. Mol Biol Evol 4(5):483–491

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Watson JD, Hopkins NH, Roberts JW, Steitz JA, Weiner AM (1987) Molecular biology of the gene, 4th edn. Benjamin/Cummings, Menlo Park

    Google Scholar 

  • Wheeler C, Maloney D, Fogel S, Goodenow RS (1990) Microconversion between murine H-2 genes integrated into yeast. Nature 347:192–194

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Whitehouse HLK (1982) Genetic recombination: understanding the mechanisms. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe KH, Sharp PM, Li W-H (1989) Mutation rates differ among regions of the mammalian genome. Nature 337:283–285

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1993 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Klein, J., Schönbach, C. (1993). Origins of Mhc Diversity. In: Solheim, B.G., Ferrone, S., Möller, E. (eds) The HLA System in Clinical Transplantation. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-77506-2_2

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-77506-2_2

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-642-77508-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-642-77506-2

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics