Summary
From the late 1920s to the early 1950s, cosmic rays were the main instrument to investigate what we now call “high-energy physics”. In approximately 25 years, an intense experimental and theoretical work brought particle physics from its childhood to its maturity. The data collected at that time played a crucial role in order to outline the quantum theories of fundamental interactions—electromagnetic, weak and strong—and they were an excellent training field for many young scientists. The knowledge acquired on cosmic rays constituted the basis of the extraordinary progresses that were to be achieved in fundamental physics with the introduction of particle accelerators. Many papers on this subject have already been published, both by historians and by the scientists who personally worked at that time. However, a complete historical reconstruction of those 25 years of cosmic-ray researches has not been written yet. In particular, an overall description of the researches carried out with the contributions of Italian physicists is still missing. The present paper tries to outline such a description, taking into account the fact that in those very years, for scientific and non-scientific reasons, physics researches were getting organised within international collaborations. Without pretending to be exhaustive at all, we would like this paper to be a stimulus for further researches on the subject.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Hess V. F., “Über Beobachtungen der durchdringenden Strahlung bei sieben Freiballonfahrten”, Phys. Z., 13 (1912) 1084–91; (English translation from The World of the Atom, Vol. 1, edited by Boorse H. A. and Motz L. (Basic Books, Inc. Pub., New-York-London) 1966.
Dirac P. A. M., “The Quantum Theory of the Emission and Absorption of Radiation”, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 114 (1927) 243–65.
Heisenberg W. and Pauli W., “Zur Quantenelektrodynamik der Wellenfelder I”, Z. Phys., 56 (1929) 1–61.
Heisenberg W. and Pauli W., “Zur Quantenelektrodynamik der Wellenfelder II”, Z. Phys., 59 (1930) 168–90.
Fermi E., “Quantum Theory of Radiation”, Rev. Mod. Phys., 4 (1932) 87–132.
Brown L. M. and Hoddeson L., The birth of particle physics (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK) 1983.
Pais A., Inward Bound: of matter and forces in the physical world (Oxford University Press, Oxford) 1986.
Brown L.M., Dresden M. and Hoddeson L., Pions to quarks. Particle physics in the 1950s (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK) 1989.
Schweber S. S., QED and the Men Who Made It: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga (Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey) 1994.
Brown L. M. and Rechenberg H., The Origin of the Concept of Nuclear Forces (Institute of Physics Publishing, Bristol) 1996.
Bothe W. and Kohlhörster W., “Das Wesen der Höhenstrahlung”, Z. Phys., 56 (1929) 751–77.
Rossi B., L’enigma dei raggi cosmici (Montedison-Progetto cultura, Imago, Milano) 1986.
Melissinos A. C. and Napolitano J., Experiments in Modern Physics (Academic Press, San Diego) 2003 (second edition).
Rutherford E. and Geiger H., “An Electrical Method of Counting the Number of alpha-Particles from Radio-Active Substances”, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 81 (1908) 141–61.
Geiger H. and Müller W., “Elektronenzählrohr zur Messung Schwächster Aktivitäten”, Naturwissenschaften, 16 (1928) 617–18.
Geiger H. and Müller W., “Das Elektronenzählrohr”, Phys. Z., 29 (1928) 839–41.
Clark G. W., “Bruno Benedetto Rossi. April 13, 1905–November 21, 1993”, Biogr. Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., 75 (1998) 310–41.
Rossi B., Momenti nella vita di uno scienziato (Zanichelli, Bologna) 1987.
Rossi B., “Method of Registering Multiple Simultaneous Impulses of Several Geiger’s Counters”, Nature, 125 (1930) 636.
Rossi B., “Nachweis einer Sekundärstrahlung der durchdringenden Korpuscularstrahlung”, Phys. Z., 33 (1932) 304–305.
Skobelzyn D. V., “Über eine neue Art sehr schneller β-Strahlen”, Z. Phys., 54 (1929) 686–702.
Rossi B., “Absorptionsmessungen der durchdringenden Korpuskularstrahlung in einem Meter Blei”, Naturwissenshaften, 20 (1932) 65.
Rossi B., “On the Magnetic Deflection of Cosmic Rays”, Phys. Rev., 36 (1930) 606.
Rossi B., “Ricerche sull’azione del campo magnetico terrestre sopra i corpuscoli della radiazione penetrante”, Nuovo Cimento, 8 (1931) 85–97.
Störmer C., “Periodische Elektronenbahnen im Felde eines Elementarmagneten und Ihre Anwendung auf Bruches Modellversuche und auf Eschenhagens Elementarwellen des Erdmagnetismus”, Z. Astrophys., 1 (1930) 237–274.
Lemaître G. and Vallarta M. S., “On Compton’s Latitude Effect of Cosmic Radiation”, Phys. Rev., 43 (1933) 87–91.
Vallarta M. S., An Outline of the Theory of the Allowed Cone of Cosmic Radiation (The University of Toronto Press, Toronto) 1938.
Fermi E. and Rossi B., “Azione del campo magnetico terrestre sulla radiazione penetrante”, Nuovo Cimento, 10 (1933) 333–338.
Clay J. and Berlage H. P., “Variation der Ultrastrahlung mit der geographischen Breite und dem Erdmagnetismus”, Naturwissenshaften, 20 (1932) 687–88.
Compton A. H., “A Geographic Study of Cosmic Rays”, Phys. Rev., 43 (1933) 387–403.
Johnson T. H., “Cosmic-Ray Intensity and Geomagnetic Effects”, Rev. Mod. Phys., 10 (1938) 193–244.
Compton A. H., “Variation of the Cosmic Rays with Latitude”, Phys. Rev., 41 (1932) 111–3.
Compton A. H., “Progress of Cosmic-Ray Survey”, Phys. Rev., 41 (1932) 681–2.
Rossi B., “Directional Measurements on the Cosmic Rays Near the Geomagnetic Equator”, Phys. Rev., 45 (1934) 212–14.
Johnson T. H., “The Azimuthal Asymmetry of the Cosmic Radiation”, Phys. Rev., 43 (1933) 834–35.
Alvarez L. and Compton A. H., “A Positively Charged Component of Cosmic Rays”, Phys. Rev., 43 (1933) 835–36.
Montgomery D. J. X., Cosmic Ray Physics (Princeton University Press, Princeton N. J.) 1949.
Rossi B., “I risultati della Missione scientifica in Eritrea per lo studio della radiazione penetrante (Raggi cosmici)”, Ric. Sci., V.1 (1934) 559–605.
Auger P. and Maze R., “Extension et pouvoir pénétrant des grandes gerbes de rayons cosmiques”, C. R. Acad. Sci., 208 (1939) 1641–43.
Rossi B., “Development of the cosmic ray techniques”, J. Phys. (Paris), C-8 (1982) 69–88.
Wilson C. T. R., “On a Method of Making Visible the Paths of Ionising Particles through a Gas”, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 85 (1911) 285–288.
Rochester G. D. and Wilson J. G., Cloud Chamber Photograph of The Cosmic Radiation (Pergamon Press LTD, London) 1952.
Anderson C., “The Apparent Existence of Easily Deflectable Positives”, Science, 76 (1932) 238–9.
Blackett P. M. S. and Occhialini G. P. S., “Some Photographs of the Tracks of Penetrating Radiation”, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 139 (1933) 699–727.
Blackett P. M. S. and Occhialini G. P. S., “Photography of Penetrating Corpuscular Radiation”, Nature, 130 (1932) 363.
Dirac P. A. M., “The Quantum Theory of the Electron”, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 117 (1928) 610–624; “The Quantum Theory of the Electron. Part II”, Proc.R.Soc. London, Ser. A, 118 (1928) 351–61.
Dirac P. A. M., “A Theory of Electrons and Protons”, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 126 (1930) 360–65.
Dirac P. A. M., “Quantised Singularities in the Electromagnetic Field”, Proc.R.Soc. London, Ser. A, 133 (1931) 60–72.
Rossi B., “Uber die Eigenschaften der durchdringenden Korpuskularstrahlung im Meeresniveau”, Z. Phys., 82 (1933) 151–78.
Rossi B., “Interaction between Cosmic Rays and Matter”, Nature, 132 (1933) 173–74.
Rossi B., High-Energy Particles (Prentice-Hall, New York) 1952.
Rossi B., “Sulla disintegrazione del piombo per effetto della radiazione penetrante”, Rend. Accad. Lincei, 17, Ser. VI (1933) 1073–77.
Rossi B. and De Benedetti S., “Una nuova componente della radiazione cosmica”, Ric. Sci., V.2 (1934) 95; 119–123.
Rossi B., “La radiazione cosmica”, Nuovo Cimento, 11 (1934) 654–56 (Lecture given at the XXIII S.I.P.S. Meeting and XXVII S.I.F. Meeting).
Rossi B., “Le attuali conoscenze sperimentali sulla radiazione cosmica”, Nuovo Cimento, 15 (1938) 43–65, Atti della XXIX Riunione della Societa Italiana di Fisica e del Congresso di Fisica.
Bethe H. and Heitler W., “On the stopping of fast particles and on the creation of positive electrons”, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 146 (1934) 83–112.
Bhabha H. J. and Heitler W., “The Passage of Fast Electrons and the Theory of Cosmic Showers”, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 159 (1937) 432–45.
Carlson J. F. and Oppenheimer J. R., “On Multiplicative Showers”, Phys. Rev., 51 (1937) 220–231.
Neddermeyer S. H. and Anderson C. D., “Note on the Nature of Cosmic-Ray Particles”, Phys. Rev., 51 (1937) 884–6.
Street J. C. and Stevenson E. C., “Penetrating Corpuscular Component of the Cosmic Radiation”, in Proceedings of the American Physical Society. Minutes of the Washington Meeting, April 29, 30 and May 1, 1937, Phys. Rev., 51 (1937) 997–1031; p. 1005.
Street J. C. and Stevenson E. C., “New Evidence for the Existence of a Particle of Mass Intermediate Between the Proton and Electron”, Phys. Rev., 52 (1937) 1003–1004.
Yukawa H., “On the interaction of elementary particles. I”, Proc. Phys.-Math. Soc. Jpn., 17 (1935) 48–57.
Rossi B., “Further Evidence for the Radioactive Decay of Mesotrons”, Nature, 142 (1938) 993.
Euler H. and Heisenberg W., “Theoretische Geschichtspunkte zur Deutung der kosmischen Strahlung”, Ergeb. Exacten Naturwiss., 17 (1938) 1–69.
Bernardini G. and De Benedetti S., “Misure di assorbimento della radiazione penetrante secondo diverse inclinazioni zenitali”, Ric. Sci., IV.2 (1933) 73–80.
Bernardini G. and Bocciarelli D., “Sull’influenza del campo magnetico terrestre sui corpuscoli della radiazione penetrante alla latitudine di Firenze”, Ric. Sci., V.1 (1934) 451–52.
Bernardini G. and Bocciarelli D., “Alcune ricerche sui cosiddetti ‘zsciami’”, Ric. Sci., V.2 (1934) 464–67.
Bernardini G. and Bocciarelli D., “Sull’assorbimento della radiazione corpuscolare penetrante secondo diverse inclinazioni zenitali”, Ric. Sci., VI.1 (1935) 33–39.
Bernardini G. and Bocciarelli D., “Contributo sul problema degli sciami”, Ric. Sci., VI.2 (1935) 83–90.
Bernardini G. and Bocciarelli D., “Sull’influenza del campo magnetico terrestre sui corpuscoli della radiazione penetrante alla latitudine di Firenze”, Ric. Sci., VI.2 (1935) 36–7.
Amaldi E., “Sulle ricerche di fisica nucleare eseguite a Roma nel quadriennio di guerra”, Ric. Sci., XVI (1946) 61–5.
Rossi B., “Electrons Arising from the Disintegration of Cosmic-Ray Mesotrons”, Phys. Rev., 57 (1940) 469–471.
Bernardini G., Cacciapuoti B. N. and Piccioni O., “Sull’assorbimento della componente dura della radiazione cosmica e la natura del mesotrone”, Ric. Sci., X (1939) 809–812.
Bernardini G., Cacciapuoti B. N., Ferretti B., Piccioni O. and Wick G. C., “The Genetic Relation Between the Electronic and Mesotronic Components of Cosmic Rays Near and Above Sea Level”, Phys. Rev., 58 (1940) 1017–26.
Cacciapuoti B. N., “Misure sul rapporto fra l’intensità della componente molle e della componente dura della radiazione penetrante nei primi mille metri al disopra del livello del mare”, Ric. Sci., X (1939) 680–83.
Bernardini G., Cacciapuoti B. N. and Ferretti B., “Misura del rapporto fra l’intensita della componente molle e della componente dura della radiazione penetrante sotto uno srato equivalente a 4 metri d’acqua al livello del mare”, Ric. Sci., X (1939) 731–33.
Bernardini G., Cacciapuoti B. N., Ferretti B., Piccioni O. and Wick G. C., “Sulle condizioni di equilibrio delle componenti elettronica e mesotronica in mezzi diversi ed a varie altezze sul livello del mare”, Ric. Sci., X (1939) 1010–17.
Bernardini G., Pancini E., Santangelo M. and Scrocco E., “Sulla produzione della radiazione secondaria elettronica da parte dei mesoni”, Ric. Sci., XII (1941) 321–40.
Amaldi E., “Underground Experiment in Europe”, in Proceedings of the International Conference of Theoretical Physics - 1953 Kyoto & Tokyo (Nippon Bunka Insatsusha, Kyobashi, Tokyo) 1954, pp. 106–12.
Rossi B., “Magnetic Experiments on the Cosmic Rays”, Nature, 128 (1931) 300–1.
Mott-Smith L. M., “On an Attempt to Deflect Magnetically the Cosmic-Ray Corpuscles”, Phys. Rev., 39 (1932) 403–14.
Blackett P. M. S., “Further Measurements of the Cosmic-Ray Energy Spectrum”, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 159 (1937) 1–18.
Leprince-Ringuet L. and Crussard J., “Étude des particules de grande énergie du rayonnement cosmique dans le champ magnétique de l’électro-aimant de Bellevue”, J. Phys. (Paris), 8 (1937) 207–12.
Jones H., “Energy Distribution and Positive Excess of Mesotrons”, Rev. Mod. Phys., 11 (1939) 235–38.
Hughes D. J., “Positive Excess and Electron Component in the Cosmic-Ray Spectrum”, Phys. Rev., 57 (1940) 592–97.
Bernardini G., Wick G. C., Conversi M. and Pancini E., “Positive Excess in Mesotron Spectrum”, Phys. Rev., 60 (1941) 535–36.
Bernardini G. and Conversi M., “Sulla deflessione dei corpuscoli cosmici in un nucleo di ferro magnetizzato”, Ric. Sci., XI (1940) 840–48.
Bernardini G., Conversi M., Pancini E. and Wick G. C., “Sull’eccesso positivo della radiazione cosmica”, Ric. Sci., XII (1941) 1227–43.
Conversi M. and Scrocco E., “Ricerche sulla componente dura della radiazione penetrante eseguite per mezzo di nuclei di ferro magnetizzati”, Nuovo Cimento, 1 (1943) 372–413.
Bernardini G., Conversi M., Pancini E., Scrocco E. and Wick G. C., “Researches on the Magnetic Deflection of the Hard Component of Cosmic Rays”, Phys. Rev., 68 (1945) 109–20.
Jánossi L., “Note on the Production of Cosmic-Ray Mesons”, Phys. Rev., 64 (1943) 345–9.
Bridge H. and Rossi B., “Cosmic-Ray Bursts in an Unshielded Chamber and Under One Inch of Lead at Different Altitudes”, Phys. Rev., 71 (1947) 379–80.
Bridge H., Rossi B. and Williams R., “Burst Production by Penetrating Cosmic-Ray Particles”, Phys. Rev., 72 (1947) 257–58.
Quercia I. F., Rispoli B. and Sciuti S., “On the Positive Excess of the Penetrating Component at 17,000 Feet”, Phys. Rev., 73 (1948) 516.
Quercia I. F., Rispoli B. and Sciuti S., “About the Positive Excess of the Hard Component of Cosmic Ray”, Phys. Rev., 74 (1948) 1728–29.
Ballario C., Benini M. and Calamai G., “On the Positive Excess of the Meson Component at Sea Level under Different Zenithal Angles”, Phys. Rev., 74 (1948) 1729–30.
Ageno M., Bernardini G., Cacciapuoti N. B., Ferretti B. and Wick G. C., “Sulla instabilità del mesotrone”, Ric. Sci., X (1939) 1073–81.
Ageno M., Bernardini G., Cacciapuoti N. B., Ferretti B. and Wick G. C., “The Anomalous Absorption of the Hard Component of Cosmic Rays in Air”, Phys. Rev., 57 (1940) 945–50.
Bernardini G., Cacciapuoti B. N., Pancini E., Piccioni O. and Wick G. C., “Differential Measurements of the Meson’s Lifetime at Different Elevations”, Phys. Rev., 60 (1941) 910–11.
Rossi B. and Hall D. B., “Variation of the Rate of Decay of Mesotrons with Momentum”, Phys. Rev., 59 (1941) 223–28.
Neher H. V. and Stever H. G., “The Mean Lifetime of the Mesotron from Electroscope Data”, Phys. Rev., 58 (1940) 766–70.
Nielsen W. M., Ryerson C. M., Nordheim L. W. and Morgan K. Z., “Differential Measurement of the Meson Lifetime”, Phys. Rev., 59 (1941) 547–53.
Bernardini G., Cacciapuoti B. N., Pancini E. and Piccioni O., “Sulla vita media del mesotrone”, Nuovo Cimento, 19 (1942) 69–99.
Williams E. J. and Roberts G. E., “Evidence for Transformation of Mesotrons into Electrons”, Nature, 145 (1940) 102–3.
Shutt R. P., De Benedetti S. and Johnson T. H., “Cloud-Chamber Track of a Decaying Mesotron”, Phys. Rev., 62 (1942) 552–53.
Montgomery C. G., Ramsey W. E., Cowie D. B. and Montgomery D. D., “Slow Mesons in the Cosmic Radiation”, Phys. Rev., 56 (1939) 635–39.
Rasetti F., “Mean Life of Slow Mesotrons”, Phys. Rev., 59 (1941) 613.
Rasetti F., “Disintegration of Slow Mesotrons”, Phys. Rev., 60 (1941) 198–204.
Auger P., Maze R. and Chaminade R., “Une demostration directe de la desintegration spontanee du meson”, C. R., 213 (1941) 381–3.
Maze R. and Chaminade R., “Une mesure directe de la vie moyenne du méson au repos”, C. R., 214 (1942) 266–9.
Conversi M. and Piccioni O., “Misura diretta della vita media dei mesoni frenati”, Nuovo Cimento, 2 (1944) 40–70.
Conversi M. and Piccioni O., “Sulla disintegrazione dei mesoni lenti”, Nuovo Cimento, 2 (1944) 71–87.
Conversi M. and Piccioni O., “On the Mean Life of Slow Mesons”, Phys. Rev., 70 (1946) 859–73.
Conversi M. and Piccioni O., “On the Disintegration of Slow Mesons”, Phys. Rev., 70 (1946) 874–81.
Rossi B. and Nereson N., “Experimental Determination of the Disintegration Curve of Mesotrons”, Phys. Rev., 62 (1942) 417–22.
Rossi B. and Nereson N., “Further Measurements on the Disintegration Curve of Mesotrons”, Phys. Rev., 64 (1943) 199–201.
Piccioni O., “The discovery of the Leptonic property”, in Present trends, Concepts and Instruments of Particle Physics–Symposium in honour of Marcello Conversi’s 70th birthday, Rome, November 1987, Proc. SIF, Vol. 15,edited by Baroni G., Maiani L. and Salvini G. (Editrice Compositori, Bologna) 1988, pp. 171–93.
Patanè S., “Sul rapporto molle/dura della radiazione cosmica al livello del mare”, Ric. Sci., XII (1941) 426–30.
Patanè S. and Panebianco B., “Sulla curva di assorbimento della radiazione cosmica sotto terra”, Ric. Sci., XII (1941) 883–86.
Patanè S. and Panebianco B., “Sulla curva di assorbimento della radiazione cosmica al livello del mare sotto differenti spessori di materia”, Nuovo Cimento, 18 (1941) 401–9.
Patanè S., “Sulla curva di assorbimento dei grandi sciami nell’aria al livello del mare”, Nuovo Cimento, 19 (1942) 254–8.
Brunetti R. and Ollano Z., “Alcune reazioni nucleari da raggi cosmici registrate su lastra fotografica”, Ric. Sci., XII (1941) 371–374.
Brunetti R. and Ollano Z., “Un particolare tipo di disintegrazione nucleare rilevato dalla lastra fotografica sottoposta ad agenti cosmici”, Ric. Sci., XIII (1942) 106–111.
Lovera G., “Risultati di analisi periodali dell’intensità della radiazione cosmica”, Ric. Sci., XIV (1943) 201.
Lovera G., “Sull’onda di 27 giorni nella radiazione cosmica ad Abisso”, Nuovo Cimento, 1 (1943) 137–40.
Amaldi E., “Gli anni della ricostruzione”, Giornale di Fisica, XX (1979) 186–225.
Cocconi G. and Tongiorgi V., “Sulla radiazione secondaria dei raggi cosmici”, Ric. Sci., X (1939) 447–55.
Cocconi G. and Tongiorgi V., “Sulla coerenza della radiazione cosmica”, Ric. Sci., X (1939) 566–9.
Cocconi G. and Tongiorgi V., “On the Equilibrium of the Components of Cosmic Radiation at Sea Level”, Phys. Rev., 57 (1940) 1180–1.
Cocconi G., “Über die Neutronen der kosmischen Ultra-Strahlung”, Naturwissenschaften, 27 (1939) 740–1.
Cocconi G., “A New Proof of the Instability of the Meson”, Phys. Rev., 57 (1940) 61–2.
Cocconi G. and Tongiorgi V., “Misure sugli sciami estesi di raggi cosmici a 2200 metri sul livello del mare”, Ric. Sci., XI (1940) 788–90.
Polvani G., “La Camera di Wilson dell’Istituto di Fisica della R. Universita di Milano”, Ric. Sci., 12 (1941) 410–20.
Cocconi G., “On the Presence of Strongly Ionizing Particles in Cosmic-Ray Showers”, Phys. Rev., 60 (1941) 533.
Cocconi G., “Particelle fortemente ionizzanti negli sciami dei raggi cosmici”, Ric. Sci., XII (1941) 940–1.
Cocconi G., “Gli sciami della componente mesotronica dei raggi cosmici esaminati con la camera di Wilson”, Ric. Sci., XIII (1942) 314–18.
Cocconi G., Loverdo A. and Tongiorgi V., “The Density Spectrum of the Extensive Cosmic-Ray Showers of the Air”, Phys. Rev., 70 (1946) 841–6.
Cocconi G., Loverdo A. and Tongiorgi V., “Experimental and Theoretical Evaluation of the Density Spectrum of Extensive Cosmic-Ray Showers”, Phys. Rev., 70 (1946) 846–9.
Cocconi G. and Tongiorgi V., “On the Fine Structure of Zenithal Curves of the Cosmic Radiation”, Phys. Rev., 70 (1946) 850–2.
Cocconi G., Loverdo A. and Tongiorgi V., “Penetrating Particles in Air Showers”, Phys. Rev., 70 (1946) 852–4.
Cocconi G. and Tongiorgi V., “The Mean Lifetime of the Meson”, Phys. Rev., 70 (1946) 855–9.
Cocconi G., Loverdo A. and Tongiorgi V., “Sulla presenza di sciami estesi di mesoni negli sciami estesi dell’aria”, Nuovo Cimento, 1 (1943) 49–55.
Cocconi G., Loverdo A. and Tongiorgi V., “Sugli sciami estesi dell’aria”, Nuovo Cimento, 1 (1943) 314–24.
Cocconi G., Loverdo A. and Tongiorgi V., “Lo spettro di densita degli sciami estesi dell’aria”, Nuovo Cimento, 2 (1944) 14–27.
Cocconi G., Loverdo A. and Tongiorgi V., “Sulla costituzione degli sciami estesi dell’aria”, Nuovo Cimento, 2 (1944) 28–34.
Johnson T. H. and Barry J. G., “The East-West Symmetry of the Cosmic Radiation at Very High Elevations Near the Equator and Evidence that Protons Constitute the Primary Particles of the Hard Component”, Phys. Rev., 56 (1939) 219–26.
Schein M., Jesse W. P. and Wollan E. O., “The Nature of the Primary Cosmic Radiation and the Origin of the Mesotron”, Phys. Rev., 59 (1941) 615.
Swann W. F. G., “A Single Component for the Primary Cosmic Radiation”, Phys. Rev., 59 (1941) 770–1.
Swann W. F. G., “Further Evidence for a Single Component in the Primary Cosmic Radiation”, Phys. Rev., 59 (1941) 836.
Dallaporta N., “Researches on high energy physics in Padova in the period 1945–1960”, in The restructuring of physical sciences in Europe and the United States 1945–1960, edited by De Maria M., Grilli M. and Sebastiani F. (World Scientific, Singapore) 1989, pp. 532–47.
Tomonaga S. and Araki G., “Effect of the Nuclear Coulomb Field on the Capture of Slow Mesons”, Phys. Rev., 58 (1940) 90–1.
Conversi M., Pancini E. and Piccioni O., “On the Disintegration of Negative Mesons”, Phys. Rev., 71 (1947) 209–10.
Conversi M., Pancini E. and Piccioni O., “On the Decay Process of Positive and Negative Mesons”, Phys. Rev., 68 (1945) 232.
Salvini G., “La vita di Oreste Piccioni e la sua attività scientifica in Italia”, Rend. Accad. Lincei, 15, Ser. 9 (2004) 289–324.
Fermi E., Teller E. and Weisskopf V., “The Decay of Negative Mesotrons in Matter”, Phys. Rev., 71 (1947) 314–5.
Fermi E. and Teller E., “The Capture of Negative Mesotrons in Matter”, Phys. Rev., 72 (1947) 399–408.
Alvarez L. W., “Recent developments in particle physics” (Nobel Lecture, December 1968), in Nobel Lectures, Physics, 1963–70 (Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam) 1972, pp. 241–90.
Becquerel A. H., “Sur les radiations émises par phosphorescence”, C. R., 122 (1896) 420–1.
Breiser A., “Nuclear Emulsion Technique”, Rev. Mod. Phys., 24 (1952) 273–311.
Goldschmidt-Clermont Y., “Photographic Emulsions”, Annu. Rev. Nucl. Sci., 3 (1953) 141–70.
Lattes C. M. G., Muirhead H., Occhialini G. P. S. and Powell C. F., “Processes involving charged mesons”, Nature, 159 (1947) 694–7.
Lattes C. M. G., Occhialini G. P. S. and Powell C. F., “Observations on the tracks of slow mesons in photographic emulsions”, Nature, 160 (1947) 453–6 (Part 1) and 486–92 (Part 2).
Marshak R. E. and Bethe H. A., “On the Two-Meson Hypothesis”, Phys. Rev., 72 (1947) 506–9.
Sakata S. and Inoue T., “On the Correlations between Mesons and Yukawa Particles”, Prog. Theor. Phys., 1 (1946) 143–50.
Perkins D. H., “The birth of pion physics”, in The restructuring of physical sciences in Europe and the United States 1945–1960, edited by De Maria M., Grilli M. and Sebastiani F. (World Scientific, Singapore) 1989, pp. 585–603.
Perkins D. H., “Nuclear Disintegration by Meson Capture”, Nature, 159 (1947) 126–7.
Occhialini G. P. S. and Powell C. F., “Nuclear Disintegrations produced by Slow Charged Particles of Small Mass”, Nature, 159 (1947) 186–90.
Peyrou C., “The role of cosmic rays in the development of particle physics”, J. Phys. (Paris), C-8 (1982) 7–66.
Fiorini E. and Franzinetti C. (Editors), “Simposio in onore di Giuseppe Occhialini per il 20° anniversario del suo ritorno in Italia”, Rend Semin. Mat. Fis. Milano, 39 (1969) 9–143.
Vegni G., “Giuseppe Occhialini in Milan in the sixties and beyond: His legacy for particle physics and his influence on young researchers and students”, in The Scientific Legacy of Beppo Occhialini, edited by Redondi P., Sironi G., Tucci P. and Vegni G., (Springer-Verlag, Berlin) 2006, pp. 115–27.
Dilworth C. C., Occhialini G. P. S. and Payne R. M., “Processing Thick Emulsions for Nuclear Research”, Nature, 162 (1948) 102–3.
Amaldi E., “Istituzione di un Centro di studio per la fisica nucleare”, Ric. Sci., XV (1945) 667–9; “Centro di studio per la fisica nucleare, Attività svolta durante l’anno 1946” Ric. Sci., XVII (1947) 394–9; “Centro di Studio per la Fisica Nucleare e delle Particelle Elementari, Attività svolta durante l’anno 1947” Ric. Sci., XVIII (1948) 54–60; “Centro di Studio per la Fisica Nucleare e delle Particelle Elementari, Attività svolta durante l’anno 1948” Ric. Sci., XX (1950) 269–74; “Centro di Studio per la Fisica Nucleare e delle Particelle Elementari, Attivitàa svolta durante l’anno 1949” Ric. Sci., XX (1950) 927–35; “Centro di Studio per la Fisica Nucleare e delle Particelle Elementari, Attivitàa svolta durante l’anno 1950” Ric. Sci., XXI (1951) 1149–60; “Centro di Studio per la Fisica Nucleare e delle Particelle Elementari, Attivitaà svolta durante l’anno 1951” Ric. Sci., XXII (1952) 1175–85.
Bernardini G., Longo C. and Pancini E., “Relazione sulla costruzione del Laboratorio della Testa Grigia”, Ric. Sci., XVIII (1948) 91–8.
Bernardini G. and Pancini E., “Ampliamento del Laboratorio della Testa Grigia”, Ric. Sci., XX (1950) 966–8.
Fidecaro G., “Il laboratorio della Testa Grigia: Attività svolta dal 1 gennaio 1953 al 30 settembre 1954”, Ric. Sci., XXV (1955) 1984–7.
Bernardini G., Cortini G. and Manfredini A., “On the Absorption of Nucleonic Component in Cosmic Rays”, Phys. Rev., 74 (1948) 1878–9; “On the Nuclear Evaporation in Cosmic Rays and the Absorption of the Nucleonic Component. I”, Phys. Rev., 76 (1949) 1792–7; “On Nuclear Evaporation in Cosmic Rays and the Absorption of the Nucleonic Component. II.”, Phys. Rev., 79 (1950) 952–63.
Buschmann J., Quercia I. F. and Rispoli B., “Sulle disintegrazioni nucleari prodotte dalla radiazione nucleonica a 3500 m s.l.d.m.”, Nuovo Cimento, 7 (1950) 457–69.
Amaldi E., Castagnoli C., Gigli A. and Sciuti S., “Sull’effetto di transizione nel fenomeno di produzione di stelle da parte della radiazione cosmica”, Nuovo Cimento, 7 (1950) 697–99.
Amaldi E., Castagnoli C., Gigli A. and Sciuti S., “Contributo allo studio degli sciami estesi, I”, Nuovo Cimento, 7 (1950) 401–56; “Contributo allo studio degli sciami estesi, II”, Nuovo Cimento, 7 (1950) 816–33.
Lovati A., Mura A., Salvini G. and Tagliaferri G., “Alcune proprietà delle esplosioni nucleari nella radiazione cosmica”, Nuovo Cimento, 6 (1949) 207–18.
Lovati A., Mura A., Salvini G. and Tagliaferri G., “Sulla natura e sul numero delle particelle penetranti nelle esplosioni nucleari prodotte nel piombo dalla radiazione cosmica”, Nuovo Cimento, 6 (1949) 291–3.
Lovati A., Mura A., Salvini G. and Tagliaferri G., “Nuclear Interactions of the Particles produced in Cosmic Ray Bursts”, Nature, 163 (1949) 1004–6.
Lovati A., Mura A., Salvini G. and Tagliaferri G., “Proprieta delle particelle emesse nelle esplosioni nucleari e confronto tra le esplosioni in C e in Pb”, Nuovo Cimento, 7 (1950) 36–47.
Lovati A., Mura A., Salvini G. and Tagliaferri G., “Cloud Chamber Observations on the Electromagnetic Component from Nuclear Explosions and the Development of the Nuclear Cascade”, Nuovo Cimento, 7 (1950) 944–53.
Heitler W., “Theory of Meson Production”, Rev. Mod. Phys., 21 (1949) 113–21.
Heitler W. and Jánossy L., “On the Absorption of Meson-producing Nucleons”, Proc. Phys. Soc. A, 62 (1949) 374–85.
Heisenberg W., “Zur Theorie der ‘Schauer’ in der Höhenstrahlung”, Z. Phys., 101 (1936) 533–40.
Heisenberg W., “Zur Theorie der explosionsartigen Schauer in der kosmischen Strahlung”, Z. Phys., 113 (1939) 61–86.
Klemm A. and Heisenberg W., “Showers with penetrating Particles”, in Cosmic Radiation, edited by Heisenberg W. (Dover Publications, New York) 1946, pp. 58–64.
Heisenberg W., “Theory of Explosion-like Showers”, in Cosmic Radiation, edited by Heisenberg W. (Dover Publications, New York) 1946, pp. 124–7.
Lewis H. W., Oppenheimer J. R. and Wouthuysen S. A., “The Multiple Production of Mesons”, Phys. Rev., 73 (1948) 127–40.
Wataghin G., “On the Multiple Production of Mesons”, Phys. Rev., 74 (1948) 975–6.
Wataghin G., “On the Showers of Mesons and Nucleons”, Phys. Rev., 75 (1949) 693.
Fermi E., “High Energy Nuclear Events”, Prog. Theor. Phys., 5 (1950) 570–83.
Fermi E., “Angular Distribution of the Pions Produced in High Energy Nuclear Collisions”, Phys. Rev., 81 (1951) 683–7.
Someda G., “L’Elettromagnete dell’Istituto di Fisica della R. Università di Padova”, Elettrotecnica, 24 (1937) 470–4.
Drigo A., “L’Istituto di Fisica della R. Università di Padova”, Energ. Elettrica, 16 (1939) 46–63.
“Atti del C.N.R. - Centro per lo studio degli ioni veloci” Ric. Sci., 17 (1947) 1176–7.
Rostagni A., “Centro di studio degli ioni veloci–Attivita svolta durante il 1948”, Ric. Sci., 19 (1949) 33–6.
Bassi P. and Loria A., “Circuito di demoltiplicazione per 64”, Nuovo Cimento, 5 (1948) 367–9.
Bassi P. and Beretta E., “Sul funzionamento dei contatori a catodo esterno”, Nuovo Cimento, 6 (1949) 585–90.
Bassi P., Filosofo I. and Prinzi L., “Azione del campo magnetico sul funzionamento dei contatori di G.M.”, Nuovo Cimento, 7 (1950) 83–93.
Bassi P. and Loria A., “Showers Generated in Lead by Mesons”, Nature, 163 (1949) 400–1.
Bassi P. and Loria A., “Sciami prodotti da mesoni”, Nuovo Cimento, 6 (1949) 559–64.
Bassi P., Clementel E., Filosofo I. and Puppi G., “On the Positive Excess of Meson Component near Sea Level”, Phys. Rev., 76 (1949) 854.
Bassi P., Clementel E., Filosofo I. and Puppi G., “Sull’eccesso positivo dei mesoni al livello del mare”, Nuovo Cimento, 6 (1949) 484–93.
Bassi P., Filosofo I., Manduchi C. and Prinzi L., “Eccesso positivo dei mesoni a 2000 metri”, Nuovo Cimento, 8 (1951) 469–74.
Bassi P., Bianchi A. M. and Manduchi C., “Sui fotoni negli sciami estesi dell’atmosfera”, Nuovo Cimento, 8 (1951) 735–7.
Bassi P., Bianchi A. M. and Manduchi C., “Sulla componente fotonica degli sciami estesi dell’aria”, Nuovo Cimento, 9 (1952) 358–64.
Rostagni A., “Centro di studio degli ioni veloci–Attivita svolta durante il 1949”, Ric. Sci., 20 (1950) 282–7.
Rostagni A., “Centro di studio degli ioni veloci–Attivita svolta durante il 1950”, Ric. Sci., 21 (1951) 1173–84.
Rostagni A., “Centro di studio degli ioni veloci–Attivita svolta durante il 1951”, Ric. Sci., 22 (1952) 911–21.
Goldschmidt-Clermont Y. and Merlin M., “On the Measurement of the mass of cosmic ray particles using a sandwich of photographic plates in a magnetic field”, Nuovo Cimento, 7 (1950) 220–9.
Merlin M., Vitale B. and Goldschmidt-Clermont Y., “Misura dell’eccesso positivo a bassa energia mediante sandwich di lastre nucleari in campo magnetico”, Nuovo Cimento, 9 (1952) 421–8.
Malaspina L., Merlin M., Pierucci O. and Rostagni A., “Stelle di disintegrazione nucleare in emulsioni fotografiche”, Nuovo Cimento, 7 (1950) 145–53.
Belliboni G., Fabbricchesi L., De Marco L. and Merlin M., “Effetto di transizione delle stelle di disintegrazione in lastre nucleari sotto piccoli spessori”, Nuovo Cimento, 8 (1951) 374–82.
Levi Setti R. and Merlin M., “Stelle di evaporazione generate in lamine metalliche”, Nuovo Cimento, 8 (1951) 504–7.
Puppi G., “Sui mesoni dei raggi cosmici”, Nuovo Cimento, 5 (1948) 587–8.
Puppi G., “Sui mesoni dei raggi cosmici”, Nuovo Cimento, 6 (1949) 194–9.
Klein O., “Mesons and Nucleons”, Nature, 161 (1948) 897–9.
Tiomno J. and Wheeler J. A., “Energy Spectrum of Electrons from Meson Decay”, Rev. Mod. Phys., 21 (1949) 144–52.
Lee T. D., Rosenbluth M. and Yang C. N., “Interaction of Mesons with Nucleons and Light Particles”, Phys. Rev., 75 (1949) 905.
Pontecorvo B., “Nuclear Capture of Mesons and the Meson Decay”, Phys. Rev., 72 (1947) 246–7.
Rostagni A., “Un Osservatorio per raggi cosmici alla Marmolada”, Energ. Elettrica, 28 (1951) 211–5.
Cresti M., Loria A. and Zago G., “Camera di Wilson in campo magnetico”, Nuovo Cimento, 10 (1953) 843–50.
Cresti M., Loria A. and Zago G., “Sulla distribuzione zenitale degli sciami estesi”, Nuovo Cimento, 10 (1953) 779–83.
Deutschmann M., Cresti M., Greening W. B., Guerriero L., Loria A. and Zago G., “An Anomalous V° Event”, Nuovo Cimento, 3 (1956) 180–3.
Cresti M., Greening W. D. B., Guerriero L., Loria A., Zago G. and Deutschmann M., “Inelasticity in Collisions Between Pions and Lead Nuclei”, Nuovo Cimento, 4 (1956) 747–57.
Burhop E. H. S., “Cloud Chamber and Associated Techniques”, Nature, 175 (1955) 832–2.
Donald R., Evans G. R., Williams E. S., Astbury J. P., Baxter P., Bullock F., Burhop E. H. S., Hill R., Jalil M. E., Massey H. S. W., Metheringham A. J., Morris N., Probst P., Raina M. N., Rangarao B. V., Stannard F. R. and Tomlinson H. S., “The Use of the High Pressure Cloud Chamber in the Study of the Unstable Particles of the Cosmic Radiation”, Suppl. Nuovo Cimento, 4 (1956) 272–85.
Mura A., Salvini G. and Tagliaferri G., “Sulla presenza di una componente penetrante negli sciami estesi dell’aria”, Nuovo Cimento, 4 (1947) 10–23.
Mura A., Salvini G. and Tagliaferri G., “Osservazioni in camera di Wilson sullo sparpagliamento laterale delle particelle negli sciami estesi”, Nuovo Cimento, 4 (1947) 102–11.
Salvini G. and Tagliaferri G., “Sulla componente penetrante degli sciami dell’aria”, Nuovo Cimento, 4 (1947) 279–82.
Mura A., Salvini G. and Tagliaferri G., “Presence of a Penetrating Component in Extensive Showers in the Atmosphere”, Nature, 159 (1947) 367–9.
Cini M. and Wataghin G., “Sull’eccesso positivo dei mesoni”, Nuovo Cimento, 7 (1950) 135–44.
Cini M. and Radicati L. A., “On the Double Scattering of Mesons by Nucleons”, Nuovo Cimento, 8 (1951) 542–51.
Fubini S., “Sui mesoni associati ai grandi sciami”, Nuovo Cimento, 8 (1951) 843–50.
“Decreto del Presidente del CNR, 8 agosto 1951, n. 600–Costituzione in Torino di un Centro sperimentale e teorico di fisica nucleare”, Ric. Sci., 21 (1951) 1814–5.
“Decreto del Presidente del CNR, 8 agosto 1951, n. 599–Istituzione dell’Istituto nazionale di fisica nucleare”, Ric. Sci., 21 (1951) 1813.
“Decreto del Presidente del CNR, 9 luglio 1952, n. 635–Riordinamento dell’Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare”, Ric. Sci., 22 (1952) 1617–8.
Rochester G. D. and Butler C. C., “Evidence for the existence of new unstable elementary particles”, Nature, 160 (1947) 855–7.
Powell C. F., “V-particles and heavy mesons”, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 221 (1954) 278–92.
“A discussion on V-particles and heavy mesons”, Proc. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 221 (1954) 277–420.
Dalitz R. H., “Strange Particle Theory in the Cosmic Ray Period”, J. Phys. (Paris), C-8 (1982) 195–205.
Peyrou C., “The early times of strange particle physics”, in The restructuring of physical sciences in Europe and the United States 1945–1960, edited by De Maria M., Grilli M. and Sebastiani F. (World Scientific, Singapore) 1989, pp. 604–51.
Baldo Ceolin M., “The Discreet Charm of the Nuclear Emulsion Era”, Annu. Rev. Nucl. Particle Sci., 52 (2002) 1–21.
Brown R., Camerini U., Fowler P. H., Muirhead H., Powell C. F. and Ritson D. M., “Observations with electron-sensitive plates exposed to cosmic radiation, part 2”, Nature, 163 (1949) 82–7.
Ceccarelli M., Dallaporta N., Merlin M. and Rostagni A., “Observation of a τ-meson”, Nature, 170 (1952) 454–5.
Bonetti A., Levi Setti R., Panetti M. and Tomasini G., “Observation of the Decay at Rest of a Heavy Particle”, Nuovo Cimento, 10 (1953) 345–6
Bonetti A., Levi Setti R., Panetti M. and Tomasini G., “On the Existence of Unstable Charged Particles of Hyperprotonic Mass”, Nuovo Cimento, 10 (1953) 1736–43.
Belloni L. and Dilworth C., “From little to big. A story of a European postwar collaboration with nuclear emulsions”, in The restructuring of physical sciences in Europe and the United States 1945–1960, edited by De Maria M., Grilli M. and Sebastiani F. (World Scientific, Singapore) 1989, pp. 732–44.
Hermann A., Krige J., Mersits U. and Pestre D., History of CERN, Vol. 1 (North Holland, Amsterdam) 1987.
Davies J. and Franzinetti C., “Report on the Expedition to Sardinia, 1953”, Suppl. Nuovo Cimento, 12 (1954) 480–97.
Powell C. F., “The Use of Stripped Emulsions for Recording the Tracks of Charged Particles”, Philos. Mag., 44 (1953) 219–22.
Leprince-Ringuet L., “Mesons and Heavy Unstable Particles in Cosmic Rays”, Annu. Rev. Nucl. Sci., 3 (1953) 39–66.
“Rendiconti del Congresso Internazionale, Padova 12–14 aprile 1954”, Suppl. Nuovo Cimento, 12 (1954) 163–497.
Baldo M., Bellliboni G., Ceccarelli M., Grilli M., Sechi B., Vitale B. and Zorn G. T., “Particelle pesanti instabili in emulsioni nucleari”, Nuovo Cimento, 1 (1955) 1180–1209.
Bonetti A., Levi Setti R. and Locatelli B., “Results on Some Secondary Particles of K-Mesons from the Stacks Flown in Sardinia 1953”, Nuovo Cimento, 1 (1955) 904–14.
Gregory B., Lagarrigue A., Leprince-Ringuet L., Muller F. and Peyrou C., “Étude de mésons K chargés, au moyen de deux chambres de Wilson superposées”, Nuovo Cimento, 11 (1954) 292–309.
Armenteros R., Gregory B., Hendel A., Lagarrigue A., Leprince-Ringuet L., Muller F. and Peyrou C., “Further Discussion of the Kμ Decay Mode”, Nuovo Cimento, 1 (1955) 915–41.
G-Stack Collaboration, “Observations on Heavy Mesons Secondaries”, Suppl. Nuovo Cimento, 4 (1956) 398–424.
G-Stack Collaboration, “On the Masses and Modes of Decay of Heavy Mesons Produced by Cosmic Radiation”, Nuovo Cimento, 2 (1955) 1063–103.
O’Ceallaigh C., “A Contribution to the History of C. F. Powell’s Group in the University of Bristol 1949–65”, J. Phys. (Paris), C-8 (1982) 185–88.
Lee T. D. and Yang C. N., “Question of Parity Conservation in Weak Interactions”, Phys. Rev., 104 (1956) 254–8.
Dalitz R. H., “On the Analysis of τ-Meson Data and the Nature of the τ-Meson”, Philos. Mag., 44 (1953) 1068–80; “Decay of τ Mesons of Known Charge”, Phys. Rev., 94 (1954) 1046–51.
Fabri E., “A Study of τ-Meson Decay”, Nuovo Cimento, 11 (1954) 479–91; “The Phenomenological Treatment of τ-Meson Decay”, Suppl. Nuovo Cimento, 12 (1954) 205–6.
Acknowledgments
We would like to express our gratitude to the library staff of the Padua Department of Physics, i.e. A. Barbierato, G. Bertante and F. Tavazzi, and to the CERN Archivist, Mrs A. Hollier. We are greatly indebted for wise comments and discussions to M. Baldo Ceolin, G. Bettella, M. Cresti, G. A. Salandin, and to all the participants to the Padua Meeting “La rinascita della fisica in Italia dal secondo dopoguerra ai primi anni 1960: protagonisti a confronto”, held in Padua in September 2006. We would also like to warmly thank J.-P. Hurni for his devoted support in and from Geneva. Finally, we express our gratitude to an anonymous referee who gave us the opportunity of improving the original manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Peruzzi, G., Talas, S. The Italian contributions to cosmic-ray physics from Bruno Rossi to the G-Stack. A new window into the inexhaustible wealth of nature. Riv. Nuovo Cim. 30, 197–257 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1393/ncr/i2007-10020-0
Received:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1393/ncr/i2007-10020-0