Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Vitamin D Acquisition and Breast Cancer Risk

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Reproductive Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Objective

The aim of the study was to focus on the association of vitamin D and breast cancer.

Methods

The study of evidence concerning vitamin D’s influence on the origin and development of breast cancer from a PubMed and individual searches.

Results

Body sunlight exposure may reduce the prevalence of breast cancer. However, these studies correspond to global populations of different countries and regions without considering other geographic factors and individual, ethnic, and cultural factors that may affect sunlight exposure. Epidemiological analyses show that low vitamin D ingestion is associated with increased risk of breast cancer. Studies measuring serum vitamin D metabolites in women who were followed many years suggest that low circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 levels are associated with increased breast cancer risk.

Conclusions

Although there are controversial results, it seems plausible that sufficient endogenous vitamin D levels may have a protective function on mammary cells, reducing breast cancer risk.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Finn OJ. Molecular origins of cancer: cancer immunology. New Engl J Med. 2008;358:2704–2715.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Jiang X, Ellison SJ, Alarid ET, Shapiro DJ. Interplay between the levels of estrogen and estrogen receptor controls the level of the granzyme inhibitor, proteinase inhibitor 9 and susceptibility to immune surveillance by natural killer cells. Oncogene. 2007;26:4106–4114.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Russo IH, Russo J. Role of hormones in mammary cancer initiation and progression. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia. 1998;3:49–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Liao DJ, Dickson RB. Steroid hormone-growth factor interactions in proliferative controls of the mammary gland and breast cancer: a rapidly evolving perspective. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2002;80:135–136.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Khaled WT, Read EK, Nicholson SE, et al. The IL-4/IL-13/Stat6 signalling pathway promotes luminal mammary epithelial cell development. Development. 2007;134:2739–2750.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. McPherson K, Steel CM, Dixon JM. ABC of breast diseases. Breast cancer-epidemiology, risk factors, and genetics. BMJ. 2000;321:624–628.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. Barlow WE, White E, Ballard-Barbash R, et al. Prospective breast cancer risk prediction model for women undergoing screening mammography. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2006;98: 1204–1214.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Holick MF. Vitamin D deficiency. N Engl J Med. 2007;357: 266–281.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Pérez-López FR. Vitamin D and its implications for musculoskeletal health in women: an update. Maturitas. 2007;58: 117–137.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Pérez-López FR. Sunlight, the vitamin D endocrine system, and their relationships with gynaecologic cancer. Maturitas. 2008;59:101–113.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Dobnig H, Pilz S, Scharnagl H, et al. Independent association of low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin d and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin d levels with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168:1340–1349.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Pérez-López FR. Vitamin D: the secosteroid hormone and human reproduction. Gynecol Endocrinol. 2007;23:13–24.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Baeke F, van Etten E, Gysemans C, Overbergh L, Mathieu C. Vitamin D signaling in immune-mediated disorders: evolving insights and therapeutic opportunities. Mol Aspects Med. 2008 [Epub ahead of print].

  14. Murayama A, Takeyama K, Kitanaka S, et al. Positive and negative regulations of the renal 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 1alpha-hydroxylase gene by parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, and 1alpha,25(OH)2D3 in intact animals. Endocrinology. 1999;140:2224–2231.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Calvo MS, Whiting SJ, Barton CN. Vitamin D intake: a global perspective of current status. J Nutr. 2005;135:310–316.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Calvo M, Ena JM. Relations between vitamin D and fatty acid binding properties of vitamin D-binding protein. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1989;163:14–17.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Bolland MJ, Grey AB, Ames RW, et al. Age-, gender-, and weight-related effects on levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D are not mediated by vitamin D binding protein. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2007;67:259–264.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Bouillon R, Okamura WH, Norman AW. Structure-function relationships in the vitamin D endocrine system. Endocr Rev. 1995;16:200–257.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Healy KD, Zella JB, Prahl JM, DeLuca HF. Regulation of the murine renal vitamin D receptor by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and calcium. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003;100: 9733–9737.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Beckman MJ, DeLuca HF. Regulation of renal vitamin D receptor is an important determinant of 1alpha, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) levels in vivo. Arch Biochem Biophys. 2002;401:44–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Lowe LC, Guy M, Mansi JL, et al. Plasma 25-hydroxy vitamin D concentrations, vitamin D receptor genotype and breast cancer risk in a UK Caucasian population. Eur J Cancer. 2005;41:1164–1169.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Ross TK, Darwish HM, DeLuca HF. Molecular biology of vitamin D action. Vitam Horm. 1994;49:281–326.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Issa LL, Leong GM, Eisman JA. Molecular mechanism of vitamin D receptor action. Inflamm Res. 1998;47:451–475.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Agic A, Xu H, Altgassen C, et al. Relative expression of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptor, vitamin D 1 alpha-hydroxylase, vitamin D 24-hydroxylase, and vitamin D 25-hydroxylase in endometriosis and gynecologic cancers. Reprod Sci. 2007;14: 486–497.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Monkawa T, Yoshida T, Hayashi M, Saruta T. Identification of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 1alpha-hydroxylase gene expression in macrophages. Kidney Int. 2000;58:559–568.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Gottfried E, Rehli M, Hahn J, Holler E, Andreesen R, Kreutz M. Monocyte-derived cells express CYP27A1 and convert vitamin D3 into its active metabolite. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2006;349:209–213.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Kemmis CM, Salvador SM, Smith KM, Welsh J. Human mammary epithelial cells express CYP27B1 and are growth inhibited by 25-hydroxyvitamin D-3, the major circulating form of vitamin D-3. J Nutr. 2006;136:887–892.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Lechner D, Manhardt T, Bajna E, Posner GH, Cross HS. A 24-phenylsulfone analog of vitamin D inhibits 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) degradation in vitamin D metabolism-competent cells. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2007;320:1119–1126.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Bouillon R, Carmeliet G, Verlinden L, et al. Vitamin D and human health: lessons from vitamin D receptor null mice. Endocr Rev. IN PRESS.

  30. Ali MM, Vaidya V. Vitamin D and cancer. J Cancer Res Ther. 2007;3:225–230.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Boyan BD, Sylvia VL, McKinney N, Schwartz Z. Membrane actions of vitamin D metabolites 1alpha,25(OH)2D3 and 24R,25(OH)2D3 are retained in growth plate cartilage cells from vitamin D receptor knockout mice. J Cell Biochem. 2003;90:1207–1223.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. VanWeelden K, Flanagan L, Binderup L, Tenniswood M, Welsh J. Apoptotic regression of MCF-7 xenografts in nude mice treated with the vitamin D3 analogue, EB 1089. Endocrinology. 1998;139:2102–2110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Bernardi RJ, Johnson CS, Modzelewski RA, Trump DL. Antiproliferative effects of 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) and vitamin D analogs on tumor-derived endothelial cells. Endocrinology. 2002;143:2508–2514.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Mantell DJ, Owens PE, Bundred NJ, Mawer EB, Canfield AE. 1Alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) inhibits angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Circ Res. 2000;87:214–220.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Welsh J. Vitamin D and breast cancer: insights from animal models. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;80:1721S–1724S.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Townsend K, Banwell CM, Guy M, et al. Autocrine metabolism of vitamin D in normal and malignant breast tissue. Clin Cancer Res. 2005;11:3579–3386.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Diesing D, Cordes T, Fischer D, Diedrich K, Friedrich M. Vitamin D—metabolism in the human breast cancer cell line MCF-7. Anticancer Res. 2006;26:2755–2759.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Peller S, Stephenson CS. Skin irritation and cancer in the United States navy. Am J Med Sci. 1937;194:326–333.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Apperly FL. The relationship of solar radiation to cancer mortality in North America. Cancer Res. 1941;1:191–195.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Garland FC, Garland CF, Gorham ED, Young JF. Geographic variation in breast cancer mortality in the United States: a hypothesis involving exposure to solar radiation. Prev Med. 1990;19:614–622.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Schwartz GG, Hulka BS. Is vitamin D deficiency a risk factor for prostate cancer? Anticancer Res. 1990;10:1307–1311.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Blot WJ, McLaughlin JK. Geographic patterns of breast cancer among American women. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1995;87:1819–1820.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Freedman DM, Dosemeci M, McGlynn K. Sunlight and mortality from breast, ovarian, colon, prostate, and non-melanoma skin cancer: a composite death certificate based case-control study. Occup Environ Med. 2002;59:257–262.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  44. Grant WB. An estimate of premature cancer mortality in the U.S. due to inadequate doses of solar ultraviolet-B radiation. Cancer. 2002;94:1867–1875.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Grant WB. Ecologic studies of solar UV-B radiation and cancer mortality rates. Recent Results Cancer Res. 2003;164: 371–377.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Giovannucci E. The epidemiology of vitamin D and cancer incidence and mortality: a review (United States). Cancer Causes Control. 2005;16:83–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Laden F, Spiegelman D, Neas LM, et al. Geographic variation in breast cancer incidence rates in a cohort of U.S. women. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1997;89:1373–1378.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. John EM, Schwartz GG, Dreon DM, Koo J. Vitamin D and breast cancer risk: the NHANES I epidemiologic follow-up study, 1971–1975 to 1992. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1999;8:399–406.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Knight JA, Lesosky M, Barnett H, Raboud JM, Vieth R. Vitamin D and reduced risk of breast cancer: a population-based case-control study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2007;16:422–429.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Tuohimaa P, Pukkala E, Scélo G, et al. Does solar exposure, as indicated by the non-melanoma skin cancers, protect from solid cancers: vitamin D as a possible explanation. Eur J Cancer. 2007;43:1701–1712.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Grimsrud TK, Andersen A. Protective effect from solar exposure, risk of an ecological fallacy. Eur J Cancer. 2008;44:16–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Abedin SA, Banwell CM, Colston KW, Carlberg C, Campbell MJ. Epigenetic corruption of VDR signalling in malignancy. Anticancer Res. 2006;26:2557–2566.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Anderson MG, Nakane M, Ruan X, Kroeger PE, Wu-Wong JR. Expression of VDR and CYP24A1 mRNA in human tumors. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol. 2006;57:234–240.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Grant WB, Garland CF, Gorham ED. An estimate of cancer mortality rate reductions in Europe and the US with 1,000 IU of oral vitamin D per day. Recent Results Cancer Res. 2007;174:225–234.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Mohr SB, Garland CF, Gorham ED, Grant WB, Garland FC. Relationship between low ultraviolet B irradiance and higher breast cancer risk in 107 countries. Breast J. 2008;14:255–260.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Simard A, Vobecky J, Vobecky JS. Vitamin D deficiency and cancer of the breast: an unprovocative ecological hypothesis. Can J Public Health. 1991;82:300–303.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Shin MH, Holmes MD, Hankinson SE, Wu K, Colditz GA, Willett WC. Intake of dairy products, calcium, and vitamin d and risk of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2002;94: 1301–1311.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. McCullough ML, Rodriguez C, Diver WR, et al. Dairy, calcium, and vitamin D intake and postmenopausal breast cancer risk in the Cancer Prevention Study II Nutrition Cohort. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2005;14:2898–2904.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Robien K, Cutler GJ, Lazovich D. Vitamin D intake and breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women: the Iowa Women’s Health Study. Cancer Causes Control. 2007;18: 775–782.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Lin J, Manson JE, Lee IM, Cook NR, Buring JE, Zhang SM. Intakes of calcium and vitamin D and breast cancer risk in women. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167:1050–1059.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Abbas S, Linseisen J, Chang-Claude J. Dietary vitamin D and calcium intake and premenopausal breast cancer risk in a German case-control study. Nutr Cancer. 2007;59:54–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Lappe JM, Travers-Gustafson D, Davies KM, Recker RR, Heaney RP. Vitamin D and calcium supplementation reduces cancer risk: results of a randomized trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85:1586–1591.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Perez-Fernandez R, Seoane S, Garcia-Caballero T, Segura C, Macia M. Vitamin D, Pit-1, GH, and PRL: possible roles in breast cancer development. Curr Med Chem. 2007;14: 3051–3058.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Garland CF, Gorham ED, Mohr SB, et al. Vitamin D and prevention of breast cancer: pooled analysis. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2007;103:708–711.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Abbas S, Linseisen J, Slanger T, et al. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and risk of post-menopausal breast cancer—results of a large case-control study. Carcinogenesis. 2008;29:93–99.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Pilz S, Dobnig H, Winklhofer-Roob B, et al. Low serum levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D predict fatal cancer in patients referred to coronary angiography. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2008;17:1228–1233.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Mawer EB, Walls J, Howell A, Davies M, Ratcliffe WA, Bundred NJ. Serum 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D may be related inversely to disease activity in breast cancer patients with bone metastases. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997;82:118–122.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Palmieri C, MacGregor T, Girgis S, Vigushin D. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in early and advanced breast cancer. J Clin Pathol. 2006;59:1334–1336.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  69. Goodwin PJ, Ennis M, Pritchard KI, Koo J, Hood N. Frequency of vitamin D (Vit D) deficiency at breast cancer (BC) diagnosis and association with risk of distant recurrence and death in a prospective cohort study of T1–3, N0–1, M0 BC. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26. Abstract 511.

  70. de Lyra EC, Katayama MH, Basso RA, et al. Ki67 tumor expression in breast cancer post-menopausal patients following calcitriol supplementation. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26. Abstract 14612.

  71. Bertone-Johnson ER, Chen WY, Holick MF, et al. Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D and risk of breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2005;14: 1991–1997.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Hiatt R, Krieger N, Lobaugh B, Drezner MK, Vogelman JH, Orentreich N. Prediagnostic serum vitamin D and breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1998;90:461–463.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Janowsky EC, Lester GE, Weinberg CR, et al. Association between low levels of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D and breast cancer risk. Public Health Nutr. 1999;2:283–291.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Freedman DM, Looker AC, Chang SC, Graubard BI. Prospective study of serum vitamin D and cancer mortality in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2007;99:1594–1602.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Garland CF, Gorham ED, Baggerly CA, Garland FC. Re: prospective study of Vitamin D and cancer mortality in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2008;100:826–827.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Freedman DM, Chang SC, Falk RT, et al. Serum levels of vitamin D metabolites and breast cancer risk in the prostate, lung, colorectal, and ovarian cancer screening trial. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2008;17:889–894.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Pendás-Franco N, González-Sancho JM, Suárez Y, et al. Vitamin D regulates the phenotype of human breast cancer cells. Differentiation. 2007;75:193–207.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Porojnicu AC, Dahlback A, Moan J. Sun exposure and cancer survival in Norway: changes in the risk of death with season of diagnosis and latitude. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2008;624:43–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Malabanan A, Veronikis IE, Holick MF. Redefining vitamin D insufficiency. Lancet. 1998;351:805–806.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Dawson-Hughes B, Heaney RP, Holick MF, Lips P, Meunier PJ, Vieth R. Estimates of optimal vitamin D status. Osteoporos Int. 2005;16:713–716.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Bhattacharjee M, Wientroub S, Vonderhaar BK. Milk protein synthesis by mammary glands of vitamin D-deficient mice. Endocrinology. 1987;121:865–874.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Mezzetti G, Monti MG, Pernecco Casolo L, Piccinini G, Moruzzi MS. 1,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol-dependent calcium uptake by mouse mammary gland in culture. Endocrinology. 1998;122:389–394.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. Mehta RG, Mehta RR. Vitamin D and cancer. J Nutr Biochem. 2002;13:252–264.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Welsh J, VanWeelden K, Flanagan L, Byrne I, Nolan E, Narvaez CJ. The role of vitamin D3 and anti-estrogens in modulating apoptosis of breast cancer cells and tumors. Subcell Biochem. 1998;30:245–270.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Campbell MJ, Gombart AF, Kwok SH, Park S, Koeffler HP. The anti-proliferative effects of 1alpha,25(OH)2D3 on breast and prostate cancer cells are associated with induction of BRCA1 gene expression. Oncogene. 2000;19: 5091–5097.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Colston KW, Perks CM, Xie SP, Holly JM. Growth inhibition of both MCF-7 and Hs578T human breast cancer cell lines by vitamin D analogues is associated with increased expression of insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3. J Mol Endocrinol. 1998;20:157–162.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Xie SP, Pirianov G, Colston KW. Vitamin D analogues suppress IGF-I signalling and promote apoptosis in breast cancer cells. Eur J Cancer. 1999;35:1717–1723.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Ricort JM, Lombet A, Lassarre C, Binoux M. Insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 increases intracellular calcium concentrations in MCF-7 breast carcinoma cells. FEBS Lett. 2002;527:293–297.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Zehnder D, Bland R, Williams MC, et al. Extrarenal expression of 25-hydroxyvitamin d(3)-1 alpha-hydroxylase. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86:888–894.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Friedrich M, Diesing D, Cordes T, et al. Analysis of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3–1alpha-hydroxylase in normal and malignant breast tissue. Anticancer Res. 2006;26: 2615–2620.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Colston KW, Lowe LC, Mansi JL, Campbell MJ. Vitamin D status and breast cancer risk. Anticancer Res. 2006;26: 2573–2580.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Simboli-Campbell M, Narvaez CJ, van Weelden K, Tenniswood M, Welsh J. Comparative effects of 1,25(OH)2D3 and EB1089 on cell cycle kinetics and apoptosis in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 1997;42:31–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Veith R. Do we really need 100 mg vitamin D/d, and is it safe for all of us? Am J Clin Nutr. 2001;74:862–864.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  94. Vieth R, Bischoff-Ferrari H, Boucher BJ, et al. The urgent need to recommend an intake of vitamin D that is effective. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85:649–650.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Garland CF, Grant WB, Mohr SB, Gorham ED, Garland FC. What is the dose-response relationship between vitamin D and cancer risk? Nutr Rev. 2007;65:S91–S95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Zaragoza Faculty of Medicine, Clínico de Zaragoza Hospital, Domingo Miral s/n, 50009, Zaragoza, Spain

    Faustino R. Pérez-López MD

  2. Instituto para la Salud de la Mujer, Guayaquil, Ecuador

    Peter Chedraui MD, MSc

  3. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ciudad Real Hospital, Ciudad Real, Spain

    Javier Haya MD

Authors
  1. Faustino R. Pérez-López MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Peter Chedraui MD, MSc
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Javier Haya MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Faustino R. Pérez-López MD.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Pérez-López, F.R., Chedraui, P. & Haya, J. Vitamin D Acquisition and Breast Cancer Risk. Reprod. Sci. 16, 7–19 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1177/1933719108327595

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1933719108327595

Key words

Search

Navigation