Abstract
Takaful is an important and major segment of the finance industry that is poised for growth. Understanding the factors that influence Muslim consumers’ purchasing behaviour is crucial to accelerate the growth in the family takaful market segment. However, research has yet to adequately address the drivers of family takaful purchase behaviour. By integrating religious obligation into the theory of planned behaviour, this study proposed and tested a model of the factors underlying family takaful purchasing behaviour, and further examined the moderating impact of gender. The findings show that Muslim consumers’ intentions to purchase family takaful are influenced by attitude and subjective norm, and purchasing behaviour is influenced by intention and perceived behavioural control. Although religious obligation affects attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioural control, its influence on family takaful purchasing intention and purchasing behaviour is not supported. These findings differ across male and female groups, emphasising the centrality of gender as a moderator and a boundary condition in the relationships posited in the model. The findings have various theoretical and managerial implications which are highlighted.
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Introduction
A growing trend in life insurance is the application of segmentation strategies to develop products that serve a niche market. One such application is the development of shariah-compliant products that are free from prohibited elements to serve the Islamic market (Hassan et al. 2018, p. 46). The Islamic market is significant, with a recent survey indicating that Muslims account for over 1.8 billion or 24% of the world’s population—a figure that is projected to outstrip 2.2. billion people by 2030 (Khan et al. 2020, p. 404). Moreover, research (Ansari 2022) has noted that the Islamic financial sector is a high-growth sector globally. One of the leading shariah-compliant life insurance products is family takaful. Under the Takaful Act (Laws of Malaysia 1984), takaful is a system built on solidarity, brotherhood, and mutual benefit that offers financial assistance to members in need through a process where members jointly agree to contribute for that reason. Compared to conventional life insurance, family takaful dominates in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) nations (93%), with Saudi Arabia leading, followed by Malaysia (Rehman et al. 2021).
A review of the literature shows that prior research on takaful has addressed various issues, including how Islamic influences customer satisfaction with takaful and conventional insurance (Akhter et al. 2021), determinants of investors, and consumers’ intentions to adopt takaful (Hassan et al. 2014; Husin and Rahman 2016b), testing differences in soundness, such as insolvency risk, competition, and organisational form across countries between takaful and conventional life insurance firms (Al-Amri et al. 2021; Alshammari et al. 2019; Rubio-Misas 2020). These studies have stopped short at examining family takaful purchasing behaviour. Moreover, although family takaful is being actively promoted to South African Muslims, it is unclear whether they are favourably disposed to its purchase. Religious obligation is one of the most influential factors driving consumers to certain consumption behaviours (Bukhari et al. 2019; Elhoushy and Jang 2021). Thus, Muslim consumers’ motivation to take up family takaful relies greatly on the extent to which they believe this insurance is a duty to keeping faith with their religion. Despite the incontestable impact of this religious obligation, previous takaful studies have not considered its important role in influencing consumers’ perceptions. Moreover, in Islam, gender roles are noticeable, which may have implications for how takaful is perceived by males and females. However, prior research on Islamic finance has not addressed the gender-specific differences that may manifest in the perceptions of Islamic financial products.
By integrating religious obligation more comprehensively into the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), this study seeks to ascertain the factors underlying family takaful purchasing behaviour among South African Muslims. Furthermore, this study examines whether gender moderates South African Muslims’ perceptions and purchase behaviour of family takaful. This study’s findings make several important contributions to the literature. First, the study is the first to integrate the religious obligation more comprehensively into the TPB to ascertain the factors underlying South African Muslims’ intentions to purchase and purchase behaviour of family takaful. Second, the study explains how religious obligation can serve as an explanatory variable in the TBP’s internal and external constructs. Third, the study uncovers and delineates the important role of gender in perceptions of family takaful and highlights the need for future related studies to consider gender differences as a matter of importance. Lastly, the study contributes to the literature on the topic from the perspective of a Muslim-minority country and a secular state. The subsequent section outlines the theoretical framework, followed by the conceptual model, and the research hypotheses development. Thereafter, the paper outlines the methods, results and discussion, as well as practical implications, theoretical contributions, and recommendations for future research.
Theoretical framework
Takaful insurance: an overview
Family takaful is an important, major segment of the Islamic finance industry (Alokla et al. 2022, p. 4). Takaful emanates from the root word “kafi”—a responsibility or guarantee. It is founded on the principle of al-Musharakah, which denotes “sharing” the catastrophe of an individual tragedy or loss between a group of people (Billah 2019; Ghlamallah et al. 2021). Consequently, takaful indicates a shared responsibility, collective assurance, and mutual undertaking. The takaful financial products are fully compliant with Islamic shariah principles, with the common goal of providing appropriate financial security against unexpected catastrophe, risk, or disaster afflicting one’s life or property. Kirfi et al. (2019) emphasised that unlike mercantile insurance, takaful is founded on strict religious orientation that abhors riba, confusion, and exploitation. It is quintessentially driven by the virtue of fairness to its participants.
Takaful has undergone unprecedented growth, particularly over the last decade, since its inception in the late 1970s in Malaysia and Southeast Asia, followed by a marked expansion in GCC countries (Karbhari et al. 2018). According to the IMARC Group (2022), the global takaful market reached US$27.6 billion in 2021. It further projected that the takaful market will grow to US$49.8 billion by 2027 at a compound annual rate of 10.5% for the 2022–2027 period. This significant projected growth augurs well for the enthusiastic adoption of takaful insurance.
Over the years, there has been a gradual increase in takaful research. The review of the literature shows that most research has been conducted in Muslim-majority countries, such as Pakistan, Turkey, and Indonesia. Relatively less research has been conducted in Muslim-minority countries like South Africa, which are witnessing a rise in the Muslim population. Although takaful is ostensibly a religious obligation, extant research has not really evaluated how it could comprehensively serve as an explanatory variable fostering a positive disposition towards this financial product. Gender unquestionably plays a significant role in many important consumption decisions, including financial products (Etale et al. 2018; Murendo and Mutsonziwa 2017). Moreover, from the literature review presented, the question of how the perception of family takaful differs between male and female Islamic consumers has not been addressed. Using the TPB, this study seeks to address this matter.
Theory of planned behaviour
Several predictive consumer behaviour models have emerged, with the most prominent being the TPB (D’Souza 2022). Developed by Ajzen (1985), the TPB is considered one of the widely used theories to understand rational behaviour. The TPB advances the theory of reasoned action (Fishbein and Ajzen 1981) by including the perceived behavioural control construct to account for instances in which a person lacks adequate control to enact the desired behaviour (Nguyen 2021). The TPB suggests that individuals’ behaviour can be explained not only by their behavioural intentions, but also by their perceived behavioural control. The theory further posits that behavioural intention is a function of attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioural control. The TPB’s validity has been established in various research domains. In Islamic finance literature, the TPB has been used as the foundation in several takaful studies concerning, for instance, agriculture takaful (Abd Aziz et al. 2015), consumers’ intentions to adopt takaful (Hassan and Abbas 2020), family takaful participation (Othman et al. 2018), takaful health insurance adoption (Kazaure 2019), motives for participation in takaful (Ghani et al. 2018), customers’ beliefs that affect takaful adoption (Bhatti and Md Husin 2019), and spiritual intelligence in purchasing family takaful (Nasir et al. 2017). The robust and resilient support of TPB in explaining family takaful behaviour makes it a solid theory to adopt to analyse South African Muslims’ family takaful purchasing behaviour.
Regardless of the TPB’s success in explaining behaviour, it cannot singularly provide a comprehensive explanation of one’s intention and behaviour. For this reason, researchers (e.g. Ajzen 2011) have advocated for the inclusion of context-specific variables that could help to better predict the TPB’s variables and to enhance its explanatory power. Previous research noted that religious obligations influence individual decisions and choices (Marmaya et al. 2019). Prior literature on Islamic finance (e.g. Ali et al. 2019; Maryam et al. 2019; Selvanathan et al. 2018) has highlighted the role of religious obligation in influencing Muslims’ behaviour towards Islamic financial products. Takaful is a financial product founded on sound Quranic principles; thus, Muslims who follow the Quran’s teachings are obligated to consider takaful insurance, instead of conventional insurance policies. Therefore, this study includes religious obligation in the TPB not only to test its influence on South African Muslims’ attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control, but also to ascertain its explanatory role regarding intention and behaviour.
Conceptual model and research hypotheses
Figure 1 presents the conceptual model depicting the relationships tested in this study. Consistent with the propositions under the TPB, this study posits that South African Muslims’ intentions to purchase family takaful directly influence their purchasing behaviour. Furthermore, the proposed model postulates that South African Muslims’ attitudes towards family takaful, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control influence their intentions to purchase family takaful. The model also argues that the TPB’s attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control, intention, and behaviour constructs are influenced by religious obligation. Lastly, gender differences are proposed to moderate the theorised relationships between the constructs in the model. The hypotheses supporting the relationships in the proposed model are presented in the next subsections.
Conceptual model
Intention and purchase behaviour
According to Li and Peng (2021), intention (commonly referred to as “purchase intention”) is the degree to which a consumer is willing to get involved in the purchase of a product. As per the TPB concept, intention is derived from or highly influenced by attitude (Ajzen 2008, 2015; Alhabash et al. 2015). Several researchers consider intention an essential variable for consumers’ purchase behaviour (Han and Yoon 2015; Peña-García et al. 2020; Xu et al. 2020). Prior research has found that intention positively affects consumers’ purchase behaviour of green products (Minbashrazgah et al. 2017), fashion products (Mehta et al. 2022; Soh et al. 2017), personal protection equipment like face masks (Liang et al. 2022), and halal products (Haque et al. 2018, 2019). In an Islamic insurance context, there is hardly any existing literature examining the impact of intention on consumer purchase behaviour of family takaful. Nevertheless, given the overwhelming empirical evidence in support of the impact of intention on behaviour, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H1
Muslim consumers’ intentions to purchase family takaful have a positive influence on their purchase behaviour.
Attitude and intention
Attitude refers to one’s positive or negative feelings arising from the evaluation of a given behaviour (Amin et al. 2011). It is important to point out that attitude also entails the assessment of the consequences of a particular behaviour. In the TPB, Ajzen (1985) argued that attitude is one of the most important explanatory variables of behavioural intention. The positive relationship between attitude and intention has been confirmed in various studies including family takaful (e.g. Husin and Rahman 2016b; Maduku 2021; Salman et al. 2018). Similarly, plenty research in the Islamic banking sector has established that attitude positive influences intention (Amin et al. 2011; Aziz et al. 2018; Janah et al. 2020; Lujja et al. 2016; Muslichah and Sanusi 2019; Oladapo et al. 2019; Souiden and Rani 2015, p. 156). Consequently, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H2
Attitude towards family takaful has a significant, positive influence on Muslim consumers’ intentions to purchase the product.
Subjective norm and intention
According to the TPB model, subjective norm is the second major construct that highly influences behavioural intention. “Subjective norm” denotes the direct and indirect influences of social pressure, which act as extrinsic incentives or barriers on an individual conscious decision-making process (Wan et al. 2017). Research (Izquierdo-Yusta et al. 2022) has noted that close friends, family, colleagues, or others regarded as important to individuals could exert a strong influence on their intentions due to the pressure to comply with their views. Consequently, consumers with positive subjective norms are more likely to have a positive intention to indulge in a particular behaviour (Daxini et al. 2019; Yousaf et al. 2015). In the Islamic finance research, subjective norm has been found to positively impact intention to adopt Islamic banking (Bananuka et al. 2020), and intention to purchase shariah insurance services and credit cards (Amron et al. 2018; Johan et al. 2020). Based on this, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H3
Subjective norm is positively related to Muslim consumers’ intentions to purchase family takaful.
Perceived behavioural control and intention
Perceived behavioural control focuses on individuals’ resources or obstacles, which influence whether they partake in a behavioural intention (Ajzen 1991). According to the TPB, even if people’s attitudes and subjective norms are positive, they may have a low intention to enact a given behaviour if they think they have limited or no control over its enactment (Ulker-Demirel and Ciftci 2020). Previous studies have showed that perceived behavioural control positively impacts farmers’ intentions to adopt nutrient management (Daxini et al. 2018) as well as individuals’ intentions to adopt blockchain technology (Kamble et al. 2019), energy-saving methods (Ru et al. 2018), continuous mobile learning (Al-Emran et al. 2020), and Internet banking (Rahi et al. 2018). Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H4
Perceived behavioural control has a positive influence on Muslim consumers’ intentions to purchase family takaful.
Perceived behavioural control and purchase behaviour
Perceived behavioural control relates to the extent to which individuals’ opportunities and resources influence whether they carry out a specific behaviour (Mishal et al. 2017; Sreen et al. 2018). In the same light, research highlights that the more perceived behavioural control people have, the more likely they are to partake in a certain behaviour and the opposite is true (Akhtar and Das 2019; Kumar et al. 2021). In a social media shopping context, recent research identified that perceived behavioural control directly influences consumers’ purchase behaviour positively (Zhou et al. 2022). As per the perceived quality characteristics and existing studies, it can be concluded that perceived behavioural control has a direct, positive impact on purchase behaviour. From the above argument, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H5
Perceived behavioural control is positively related to Muslim consumers’ family takaful purchase behaviour.
Religious obligation and attitude
Religious obligation is the constraining influence of religion on one’s choices and behaviours (Amin et al. 2011). This has been shown to affect an individual’s behavioural intentions and guide decision-making during the purchase process (Lee et al. 2016), though this is more prevalent in the Islamic religion, which is based on shariah law (Newaz et al. 2016). Since Muslims have this religious obligation, many are likely to opt for family takaful due to its compliance with their faith. This decision would help them escape the religious harms associated with purchasing conventional life insurance policies. Recent studies by Albaity and Rahman (2021), Atal et al. (2020), Boubker et al. (2021), and Ghazali et al. (2022) have established that religious obligation positively impacts attitude. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H6
Religious obligation is positively related to Muslim consumers’ attitudes to accept family takaful.
Religious obligation and subjective norms
According to Khalek (2014), the impact of subjective norms is largely driven by religiosity that individuals encounter and from their community of believers. Khalek (2014) added that subjective norms are significantly influenced by the religious obligations displayed by the referents encountered by a person. Correspondingly, Janah et al. (2020) emphasised the central role of religious obligation in influencing subjective norms. In other words, the more religious individuals’ referent groups are, the more likely they are to comply with their expectations to consume in line with the dictates of their religious faith. A prior study similarly found that religious obligation directly or indirectly affects the selection behaviour of products, such as Islamic financing (Maamor et al. 2016). In addition, Farouk et al. (2018) highlighted that religion strengthens one’s subjective norm positively. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is presented:
H7
Religious obligation has a significant, positive influence on the role of subjective norm in Muslim consumers’ family takaful decisions.
Religious obligation and perceived behavioural control
One of the prominent roles of religiosity is its ability to promote one’s general self-efficacy (Abdel-Khalek and Lester 2017; Wright 2010). Self-efficacy is integral to the perceived behavioural control construct in the TPB. Research has found that religious obligation has a crucial effect on individuals’ lives by shaping knowledge and confidence to enact a given behaviour (Jamshidi and Hussin 2018). Consequently, Muslims who are firmer in their observance of religious obligations may actively seek knowledge and resources that will make it simpler for them to consider family takaful due to its compliance with their Islamic faith. Based on the foregoing argument, the following hypothesis is presented:
H8
Religious obligation has a significant, positive influence on Muslim consumers’ perceived behavioural control.
Religious obligation and intention
People are generally keen to enact behaviours that comply with their religious faith. Prior research has confirmed the link between religious obligation and intention. Newaz et al. (2016) found that Muslims’ religiosity significantly influences their intentions to purchase Islamic financial products. Similarly, Ghazali et al. (2022), Han (2019), Janah et al. (2020), and Yi and Zhongkai (2018) established that religious obligation significantly influences intention to adopt. In an Islamic insurance context, religious obligation is a strong predictor of family takaful adoption (Shaikh et al. 2020). Hence, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H9
Religious obligation is positively related to Muslim consumers’ intentions to purchase family takaful.
Religious obligation and purchase behaviour
Research has shown that religious obligation not only influences individuals’ attitudes, activities, and purchase choices, but also their consumption patterns (Aziz et al. 2019). In the Islamic context, religious obligation is more dominant as it directly or indirectly influences purchase and consumption behaviour of halal (or acceptable) products (Sherwani et al. 2018). Extant research shows that Muslim consumers experience inner satisfaction in fulfilling their religious obligation in their purchase and consumption of goods and/or services (Saeed et al. 2021). Furthermore, Ali et al. (2021) concluded that fulfilling or meeting the religious obligation is imperative for Muslim consumers. As such, Muslim consumers’ purchasing behaviour is likely to be driven by their religious obligation. As per the argument above, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H10
Religious obligation is positively related to Muslim consumers’ family takaful purchase behaviour.
The moderating role of gender in the extended theory of planned behaviour
Gender focuses on how individuals express and see themselves in terms of feminine and masculine traits (Magliozzi et al. 2016). Consistent with this view, this study follows the traditional concept of being male or female, since gender roles are highly demarcated in Islam (Roomi et al. 2018). Several studies (e.g. Chatzidakis and Maclaran 2020) have confirmed how social standards of sex roles and gender identities (i.e. gender norms) influence decision-making. Furthermore, social science research shows that the decision-making process is different among males and females due to their characteristics (ElMassah and Abou-El-Sood 2021). For example, males and females possess different attitudes (Delistavrou 2022), subjective norms (Liong and Cheng 2017), perceived behavioural control (Cooke et al. 2016), and religious obligations (Azam 2016; Beldad and Hegner 2018), which influence their intentions and consumption behaviour, despite growing up in the same environmental settings. These studies show that compared to females, males have higher levels of attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioural control, and therefore a stronger intention.
In conservative Islam, gender roles are considerably pronounced. For instance, Khalid and Frieze (2004) contended that conservative Islam endorses the marginalisation of women and takes exception to their independence outside the home. In this regard, gender is likely to play a significant moderating role between the proposed constructs (refer to Fig. 1) and intention to purchase family takaful in this study. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H11
Gender moderates the relationships in the proposed model.
Methods
Measurements
A survey strategy was used to obtain the data for the study. The survey questionnaire comprised two parts. The first section consisted of demographic and background questions concerning gender, age, level of education, and culture. The second section contained the items used to measure the study’s constructs. Multi-scaled items, selected and adapted from previous studies, were utilised to measure this study’s constructs. The items for measuring attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control, and intention were selected and adapted from Husin and Rahman (2016a). The items used to measure religious obligation and family takaful purchase behaviour were adapted from Amin et al. (2011) and Fathi et al. (2016), respectively. These items were measured on a five-point Likert scale, with anchors ranging from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 5 (“strongly agree”).
Prior to fielding the questionnaire, it was piloted on a sample of 20 respondents. The purpose of piloting the questionnaire was to ascertain whether the respondents understood the instructions and wording of the questions, and whether any questions were uncomfortable to the respondents. The pilot test identified a few typos and fuzzy statements. Furthermore, the internal consistency of the constructs’ measures was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha. The estimated Cronbach’s alpha for the constructs based on the pilot sample ranged from 0.716 for attitude to 0.894 for religious obligation. These are greater than 0.7 threshold for internal consistency, thus confirming the internal reliability of the measures of the constructs. After addressing the identified typos and revising the fuzzy statements for more clarity, the questionnaire was finalised for data collection.
Data collection
The target population was defined as Muslims above the age of 18 residing in South Africa. The survey was administered using personal and online techniques. Convenience and snowball sampling techniques were used. For the personal administration, the researchers visited local mosques during religious gatherings and Muslim communities to administer the questionnaire. For the online survey, the questionnaire was programmed using Google Forms. The link to the questionnaire was sent to selected Muslims in the researchers’ social circles. The respondents were requested to complete the online survey. At the end of the survey, they received a thank-you message and were asked to forward the link to their Muslim contacts. The personal survey administration generated 86 usable responses and the online survey generated 149 responses. Of these respondents, 133 (56.6%) were male and 102 (43.4%) were female. Over two-thirds of the respondents (70.2%) were aged below 40, while 29.8% of the sample was above 40 years old. In terms of monthly household income, most respondents (n = 106; 45.1%) indicated earning ZAR15 001–ZAR30 000 (approximately US$1 000–US$2 000) per month. This was followed by respondents who earned ZAR5 601–ZAR15 000; ZAR30 001–ZAR40 000; more than ZAR40 000; and lastly ZAR0–ZAR5 600. The sample’s ethnicity was diverse, although most of the respondents (n = 177; 75.3%) identified as Indian, 11% as African, 7.2% as mixed race, 3.8% as white, and 2.6% preferred not to say. Less than a third of the sample (n = 70; 29.8%) indicated having a life policy.
Common method bias
To ascertain whether common variance of the data gathered was free from common method bias, the common latent factor technique (Podsakoff et al. 2003) was applied. By following the recommendation of Lowry et al. (2013), two models were created. In the first model, all measurement items were freely specified to load onto their theoretical constructs; while in the second model, all items were restricted to load onto the unmeasured latent factor. A Chi-square test was then computed to assess these models. The results showed that the constrained and unconstrained models were not significantly different from each other, suggesting common method bias was not an issue in this study.
Model testing
The testing of the model was carried out using structural equation modelling with the aid of Amos 28. A maximum likelihood estimation technique was used throughout the analysis. Following the recommendation of Anderson and Gerbing (1988), the validity of the measurement model was first established, with the structural model then being assessed to examine the hypotheses. The measurement model was analysed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to confirm the validity of the measurements before the structural model was analysed to examine the hypotheses. The CFA entailed the assessment of convergent and discriminant validity. Fit indices, standardised factor loading, composite reliability (CR), and average variance extracted (AVE) were used to assess convergent validity. During the initial estimation of the measurement, two factors (ATT3 and SNM3) did not load strongly on their theoretical constructs (factor loadings were < 0.6) and were deleted from the CFA model, which was respecified. The results of the respecified model produced acceptable fit indices (χ = 506.642; df = 174; χ/df = 2.912; comparative fit index [CFI] = 0.914; standardised root mean square residual [SRMR] = 0.068; root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] = 0.069), indicating the CFA model had an acceptable fit with the data. Apart from two factors—SNM1 and BEH3, with loadings of 0.611 and 0.610, respectively—all factors’ loadings (see Table 1) exceeded the 0.7 recommended threshold (Hair et al. 2019). Moreover, the CR for all the constructs exceeded the 0.7 threshold, with 0.851 (subjective norm) being the lowest. The estimated AVEs for the constructs also exceeded the 0.5 threshold (Hair et al. 2019).
The Fornell and Larcker (1981) and the heterotrait–monotrait (HTMT) ratio of correlations techniques (Henseler et al. 2015) were used to assess the discriminant validity of the CFA model. According to Fornell and Larcker (1981), a CFA model attains discriminant validity if the square root of the AVEs is less than the inter-factor correlations. The results presented in Table 2 show that the highest inter-factor correlation—between intention and attitude—is 0.806. This is less than the lowest AVE (0.821), thus confirming discriminant validity as per the Fornell–Larcker (1981) technique. With the HTMT technique, discriminant validity is confirmed whether the HTMT ratio of correlations is less than the conservative threshold of 0.85 or the liberal threshold of 0.9. Table 3 shows that the highest HTMT ratio of correlation is 0.813—between attitude and intention. Given that this is less than the 0.85 conservative threshold, discriminant validity is also confirmed by the HTMT guidelines.
Having confirmed the validity of the constructs’ measures, the proposed model was analysed to test the hypotheses. Prior to testing the hypotheses, the proposed model’s fit with the data was assessed. The results (χ = 534.602; df = 179; χ/df = 2.987; CFI = 0.908; SRMR = 0.069; RMSEA = 0.072) showed that the model fits the data reasonably well. The results of the hypotheses testing for the direct relationships in the model are presented in Table 4 and Fig. 2 and prove that exogenous constructs provide a significant explanation of their respective endogenous constructs. Specifically, the results showed that 21%, 6%, and 23% of the variance in attitude, subjective norm, and PBC, respectively, are explained by religious obligation. The results further showed that the exogenous variables explain 65% and 10% of the variance in intention to purchase family takaful and purchase behaviour, respectively.
Hypotheses testing
In terms of the relationships between the constructs, the results of the analysis showed that intention significantly and positively predicted purchase behaviour (β = 0.210, t = 2.632, p < 0.01), which statistically supported H1. Similarly, the results showed that attitude towards family takaful products had a significant, positive influence on South African Muslims’ intentions to purchase family takaful products (β = 0.747, t = 9.179, p < 0.001), thus providing support for H2.
Subjective norm was statistically significant and positively impacted intention to purchase takaful products (β = 0.146, t = 2.360, p < 0.5). Contrastingly, the relationship between perceived behavioural control and intention was not significant (β = 0.056, t = 0.901, p > 0.05). Therefore, H3 was statistically supported, while H4 was not supported. However, the findings suggested there was a significant, positive relationship between perceived behavioural control and purchase behaviour (β = 0.177, t = 2.268, p < 0.05), showing support for H5. In the same line, attitude was significantly and positively predicted by religious obligation (β = 0.423, t = 5.750, p < 0.001), meaning H6 was statistically supported.
As per the results, the relationship between religious obligation and subjective norm was significant and positive (β = 0.219, t = 2.706, p < 0.01). Hence, H7 was statistically supported. In a similar vein, the findings suggested that religious obligation had a significant and positive impact on South African Muslims’ perceived behavioural control (β = 0.464, t = 6.803, p < 0.001), thus providing statistical support for H8. Additionally, the results suggested that the influence of religious obligation on intention was significant and negative (β = − 0.173, t = − 2.496, p < 0.05). The analysis also found that religious obligation was not significantly related to purchase behaviour (β = − 0.095, t = − 1.179, p > 0.05). Consequently, H9 and H10 were not statistically supported.
Lastly, we conducted a nested model analysis to ascertain the extent to which the contribution of the religious obligation is an extension to the TPB. In doing this, we derived the TPB from the proposed model by constraining the paths from religious obligation to all the TPB’s constructs to zero; only constructs in the TPB were allowed to covary. Using the nested model analysis technique (Hutchens 2017), we compared the constrained model (i.e. TPB) with the unconstrained model (i.e. proposed model). The results of this nested model analysis showed that the addition of the religious obligation construct to the TPB’s model significantly improved its fit (Δχ2 = 55.929, Δdf = 4, p = 0.0001). This result statistically supported the contextual importance of religious obligation in the TPB to analyse Muslims’ family takaful purchasing behaviour.
The moderating role of gender
To ascertain the moderating role of gender in the relationships in the model, the data was split into male (133) and female (102) groups. A multi-group analysis was employed to match the variances in the path coefficients of the structural paths for the male and female subgroups (Islam et al. 2019). The fit indices for the model with the gender subgroups suggested an acceptable fit with the data (χ = 813.410; df = 353; χ/df = 2.285; CFI = 0.908; SRMR = 0.0590; RMSEA = 0.063). Moreover, the Chi-square difference test between the unconstrained and constrained structural weight models showed that the two models were significantly different (Δχ2 = 64.406, Δdf = 23, p = 0.000), confirming the structural weights as non-invariant across the groups. Subsequently, a Chi-square difference test was used to compute the significance of the difference in the path estimates for the male and female samples. The results of multi-group analyses are presented in Figs. 3 and 4, and Table 5.
Structural path model for the male sample
Structural path model for the female sample
According to the results of the multi-group analyses in Table 5, behavioural intention’s impact on purchasing behaviour is significant for the male sample (β = 0.350; t = 3.758, p < 0.000), but not for the female sample (β = − 0.018; t = − 0.159, p < 0.874). The results of the Chi-square difference test further highlighted that the difference in the path estimates across the two groups was statistically significant (Δχ2 = 3873, Δdf = 1, p = 0.039). Furthermore, the results in Table 5 show the relationship between attitude and intention is significant for males (β = 0.848, t = 4.758, p < 0.000), but not for females (β = − 0.115, t = − 0.773, p = 0.439), with the difference between the path estimates for the male and female genders being significant (Δχ2 = 9.683, Δdf = 1, p = 0.002). The impact of subjective norm on intention to purchase family takaful was not significant for males (β = 0.028, t = 0.367, p = 0.714) and females (β = 0.081, t = 0.380, p = 0.704). Moreover, the results showed the impact of perceived behavioural control on family takaful purchase intention differs between the male (β = 0.070, t = 0.947, p = 0.344) and female (β = 0.275, t = 2.853, p < 0.01) groups, as perceived behavioural control significantly impacted the female sample’s intentions to purchase takaful insurance, whereas for the males, the relationship was not significant. Nevertheless, the results of the Chi-square test for the significance of the path difference showed that the difference between the path estimates for the male and female samples were not statistically significant (Δχ2 = 1.727, Δdf = 1, p = 0.189). Similarly, the results showed that perceived behavioural control’s impact on purchasing behaviour was significant for the male sample (β = 0.196, t = 2.160, p < 0.05), but not for the female sample (β = 0.079, t = 0.714, p = 0.475). However, the results of the Chi-square test showed that the difference between the path estimates was not statistically significant (Δχ2 = 0.556, Δdf = 1, p = 0.456).
In terms of the relationship between religious beliefs and subjective norm, the impact was significant for the males (β = 0.427, t = 3.892, p < 0.001), yet not for the females (β = − 0.088, t = − 1.749, p = 0.100). The Chi-square difference test for the difference in the path coefficient was statistically significant (Δχ2 = 15.841, Δdf = 1, p = 0.000). Moreover, the impact of religious beliefs on perceived behavioural control differed between the male (β = 0.543, t = 6.006, p < 0.001) and female (β = 0.393, t = 3.766, p < 0.001) groups, proving stronger for the males. Nevertheless, the Chi-square difference test for the relationship was not statistically significant (Δχ2 = 2.214, Δdf = 1, p = 0.137).
Discussion
The objective of the study was twofold. It aimed to integrate religious obligation into the TPB to examine the factors influencing South African Muslim consumers’ family takaful purchase behaviour and to ascertain the moderating role of gender in the relationships posited in the model.
The results from this study show that intention to purchase family takaful significantly impacts purchase behaviour. This is consistent with the TPB and extant research (Afroz et al. 2015; Jaiswal and Kant 2018; Kumar et al. 2017). The findings of this study, along with several others, emphasise the centrality of intention in predicting actual behaviour. The study further indicates that the impact of intention on takaful purchasing behaviour is only significant for males. This finding highlights gender as the boundary condition—that is, it limits the generalisability of the results—for the relationship between intention and purchasing behaviour when it comes to family takaful.
Moreover, the study proves that attitude has a strong positive effect on intention. The findings of attitude’s impact on intention are not only consist with the TPB, but also concur with those of several existing studies in Islamic finance (e.g. Amin et al. 2011; Aziz et al. 2018; Janah et al. 2020; Lujja et al. 2016), which have found intention to be a significant determinant of attitude. Of all the factors influencing the intention to purchase a family takaful policy in this study, attitude is the strongest, thus emphasising the criticality of attitude in predicting intention towards the purchase of family takaful. Interestingly, this finding deviates from other findings in the original TPB (Ajzen 1991), where the impact of perceived behavioural control on intention was found to be stronger than attitude. However, it is noteworthy that attitude towards family takaful only influences intentions to purchase the product among males. Additionally, this finding underscores that the impact of attitude on intention is bounded by gender.
According to the study’s findings, subjective norm is a significant explanatory variable of intention to purchase family takaful products. This finding is consistent with those of the original TPB, implying that Muslim consumers are likely to develop a positive intention to purchase takaful products if the people whose opinions they value believe they should get it. It is particularly intriguing that in the gender-specific samples, the subjective norm–intention relationship is not significant for the male and female samples. This emphasises that overlooking gender-specific differences in the analysis may bias parameter estimates, which could result in type 1 and 2 errors.
Contrary to expectation, perceived behavioural control is not a statistically significant predictor of consumers’ intentions to purchase takaful insurance. This is inconsistent with the proposition under the original TPB and findings of prior research (e.g. Othman et al. 2018). Although the relationship between perceived behavioural control and intention is not significant in the overall sample, it is significant in the female sample, but not for the male sample, though the differences in parameter estimates for the subsamples are not significant. Moreover, the study found that perceived behavioural control is significantly and positively related to purchase behaviour. This is consistent with the original TPB and study by Zhou et al. (2022), which discovered that perceived behavioural control significantly impacts consumers’ purchase behaviour in a social media shopping context. Although the relationship between perceived behavioural control and purchasing behaviour is significant in the overall sample, the results are mixed in the gender-specific samples, with the path being significant for the males, but not for the females. Notwithstanding, the difference in the parameter estimates for the two groups is not significant.
The study’s results further indicate that religious obligation is significantly associated with attitude. This implies that the more Muslims perceive family takaful to be religiously obligatory, the more likely they are to develop a positive attitude towards its purchase. This finding is consistent with prior Islamic finance studies (e.g. Albaity and Rahman 2021; Atal et al. 2020; Boubker et al. 2021; Ghazali et al. 2022), which support that religious obligation is a strong predictor of attitude. The significant relationship between religious obligation and attitude is also robust across the male and female subsamples, albeit the impact is stronger in the male sample.
Similarly, the results show that religious obligation is also a significant explanatory variable of subjective norm. This suggests that the more Muslim consumers view family takaful as a religious obligation, the more likely they are to comply with the expectations of their referent groups regarding family takaful. This finding is unique to the present study as previous research has not addressed the impact of religious obligation on subjective norm. However, it is crucial to emphasise the observable difference in the results, as the finding is only salient for the male sample.
The research results indicate that religious obligation is significantly related to perceived behavioural control among South African Muslims. This suggests the extent to which Muslims believe their ability to purchase family takaful policies is related to their religious obligation. The relationship between religious obligation and perceived behavioural control has not been examined in the extant literature. Nevertheless, this study confirms that religious obligation is instrumental to enhancing knowledge and confidence to perform a given behaviour (Jamshidi and Hussin 2018). This result is also consistent across the male and female samples, although the impact is stronger for the males.
Interestingly, the study’s findings suggest that religious obligation is significant and negatively related to Muslims’ intentions to purchase family takaful products. This result is unexpected, as it suggests that the higher people’s religious obligations are, the less likely they are to develop positive intentions to purchase family takaful. Thus, it can be concluded that the religious obligation levels act as a barrier to intention to purchase family takaful among South African Muslims. A similar finding was reached by Ali et al. (2022), who discovered that religious obligation is negatively related to Pakistani Muslims’ acceptance of Islamic financing. The proximate explanation for this finding is that many Muslims consider life insurance a prohibition (Shalim 2016), as it is their firm conviction that Allah is in life and death and having life insurance is an interference with the work of Allah (Bouargane 2020). However, it should be noted that religious obligation’s negative effect on intention is not unanimous across the genders, as this result only holds true in the female sample.
Finally, the findings confirm a non-significant association between religious obligation and purchase behaviour. This is inconsistent with other research (e.g. Ghazali et al. 2022; Hong et al. 2019) suggesting that religious obligation plays a significant role in influencing Muslim consumers’ purchase behaviour of products, such as halal meat. The plausible explanation of the non-significant relationship between religious obligation and family takaful purchase behaviour may be related to the belief that life insurance is non-Islamic. Even so, this finding only applies to the female Muslims in the sample, not the male, emphasising pertinent gender difference in the findings.
Implications
Managerial implications
The results reveal that religious obligation influences attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioural control on family takaful purchases among South African Muslim consumers. Moreover, the study indicates that attitude significantly influences intention, which further impacts purchase behaviour of family takaful. Based on the results, insurance firms can build more effective marketing initiatives by concentrating on the major original TPB model predictors of family takaful actual purchase behaviour, such as attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control, and intention. Similarly, insurance company managers should invest more in the driving factors of the extended TPB model, such as religious obligation, due to its importance in enhancing positive attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioural control of family takaful. For instance, life insurance firms should highlight that their family takaful products strictly follow the Islamic law to enhance positive attitude among existing or potential consumers and avoid the use of prohibited factors in marketing messages. To increase subjective norm and intention to purchase family takaful, marketers should often stipulate the benefits of purchasing takaful in marketing communications, testimonials, as well as via word of mouth among existing consumers and other promotional tools.
Gender has been identified as a critical moderator in influencing family takaful purchase behaviour, as there are significant differences between males and females. In this regard, life insurance marketers should emphasise viable ways to maintain and improve the factors males or females value to purchase family takaful products. For example, perceived behavioural control impacts purchase behaviour for males only, whereas perceived behavioural control influences intention for females only when it comes to the purchase of family takaful products. Therefore, to persuade or attract male consumers, life insurance firms should highlight the perceived behavioural control traits males possess to drive family takaful purchases. To drive intention among potential female consumers, perceived behavioural control characteristics should be emphasised in adverts or marketing messages. Unique marketing strategies should be developed and tailored for specific genders, with the guidance of this study’s findings to increase family takaful purchases.
Theoretical implications
This study offers numerous important contributions to the literature on Islamic finance and family takaful. First, although previous research has examined family takaful (e.g. Ali et al. 2019; Hassan and Abbas 2020; Shaikh et al. 2020), this study is among the first to consider religious obligation as an important context-specific variable and to integrate it more comprehensively into the TPB to investigate South African Muslims’ family takaful purchasing behaviour. The study’s findings demonstrate, through a nested model analysis, that integration of religious obligation as a context-specific variable in the TPB significantly improves the fitness of the research model. Furthermore, the findings provide rich insights into how religious obligation could serve as an explanatory variable to the TPB’s external constructs of attitude, subjective, and perceived behavioural control, and how it complemented attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioural control in explaining family takaful purchase intention. These results are unique and present a future reference point for the integration of religious obligation in the TPB.
Second, while previous research has examined takaful insurance, it has stopped short at examining purchasing behaviour. Unlike previous studies, this research examined family takaful purchasing behaviour and, in so doing, extended literature on the topic.
Third, this study’s findings uniquely contribute to the literature by highlighting the crucial role of gender in the perception of and decisions on family takaful patronage. As prior research on the topic has not addressed gender, the findings irrefutably underscore the centrality of gender in family takaful perceptions and decisions, and emphasise the need for future related studies to consider the moderating impact of gender as a boundary condition for the relationship between the constructs posited in their research.
Fourth, previous studies on the topic are based on consumers from Muslim-majority countries like Pakistan, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Research on Islamic finance in general and family takaful in Muslim-minority countries are scant. Consequently, this study makes a vital contribution to the literature on the topic from a Muslim-minority country like South Africa, which is witnessing one of fastest growths in the Islamic religion by conversion (Vahed 2021).
Managerially, this study supports financial institutions in understanding how religious obligation strengthens attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioural control, and how these influence consumers’ intentions to purchase family takaful and, ultimately, their purchase behaviour. This study’s findings are essential for practitioners to formulate strategies to promote wider acceptance of takaful insurance.
Limitations and directions for future study
Despite providing sound and insightful findings, this study has some limitations that should be considered in future research. Although the study focused on extending the TPB model with religious obligation and using gender as a mediating variable in the South African context, convenience and snowball sampling techniques were used for data collection from 235 respondents. Therefore, the generalisation of the findings across developed and other emerging countries should be treated with caution. Future research could consider other sampling methods, such as probability techniques, and use a larger sample size to enhance the validity of the findings. The construct adopted for the TBP extended model shows that the coefficient of determination only explained 65% of consumers’ intentions to accept family takaful, whereas the other 35% is explained by unknown factors not included in the examined model. This calls for additional factors on the TPB to be considered and examined by future researchers on a similar topic.
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Maduku, D.K., Mbeya, S. Understanding family takaful purchase behaviour: the roles of religious obligation and gender. J Financ Serv Mark 29, 440–458 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41264-023-00213-z
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41264-023-00213-z