Abstract
Based on a field monitored dataset measured at landfill #1 over 21 years, the characteristics of settlement coupling mechanical creep and biodegradation and the residual settlement were analyzed. Since landfill #1 is a multi-stage municipal solid waste (MSW) landfill where dykes are constructed after landfilling for subsequent waste fills, the waste decomposition between the lower and upper lifts was quite different and it is difficult to discern between the mechanical creep and bio-compression on the settlement curves. The compression ratio coupled with mechanical creep and bio-compression and the residual compression ratio were determined as 0.233 and 0.068, respectively. This implies that biodegradation was gradually and significantly reduced in the MSW settlement behavior after the residual settlement began. The starting date of residual settlement was distributed between 3821 and 5402 days from the initial date of landfilling. The settlement coupling mechanical creep and biodegradation (SMB) was 2.9 times larger than the residual settlement (SRS), and the duration of SMB is determined to be 0.3 times that of SRS. In addition, the remnant methane gas content existed in the landfill gas, and low-level biodegradation was still generated in the waste buried for more than 10 years after the residual settlement began.
Similar content being viewed by others
Introduction
After waste disposal is completed in a landfill, a final cover is laid on its surface, and the space on the landfill surface could be used as public places such as parks, golf courses, and various facilities1. However, significant settlements can be generated in completed municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills due to the decomposition of organic matter, i.e., biodegradation2,3,4,5. This settlement could damage the public facilities or superstructures placed on the landfill surface, and thus they should be constructed after active biodegradation is considerably reduced. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the point of time when the organic matter in the landfill has almost completely disappeared and residual settlement starts.
Geotechnical researchers have studied the settlement phases and mechanisms, i.e., the long-term MSW settlement behavior, to investigate this point for decades. Grisolia and Napoleoni6 mentioned that active biodegradation decreased within 11–33 years from the beginning of waste disposal, depending on the waste composition, and Hossain and Gabr7 stated that the residual settlement would occur when 3500 days elapsed from the start of waste disposal. Fei and Zekkos8 reported that, based on a series of laboratory tests, the biodegradation-dominant settlement was almost finished after 20.0–35.3% of the total duration had elapsed. Kumar et al.9 mentioned that the behavior of MSW in landfills is influenced by the complex coupled interactions of different phenomena which mainly include hydraulic, mechanical, and biochemical processes. Although several studies have been reported, research on the residual settlement behavior of MSW landfills based on field-monitored data on long-term waste settlement is rare. This is because it is difficult to obtain data measured for decades at landfill sites for several reasons, e.g., the malfunctioning of settlement plates due to physical and chemical corrosion. It also remains unknown for how long MSW landfills have to be monitored as existing landfill sites are still in aftercare period10.
In addition, the waste settlement mechanisms can be expressed as the waste settlement characteristics, i.e., compression index or ratio, and many researchers2,8,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32 reported these values based on the results from laboratory or field tests. Geotechnical engineers have referred to these values to understand the behavior of long-term MSW landfills.
In this study, the long-term waste settlement behavior during post-closure was examined using a field-monitored dataset measured at a multi-stage MSW landfill over 21 years. Based on time-series analysis, the date on which the biodegradation of organic matter was significantly reduced and the residual settlement mechanism became dominant was determined as well as the compression ratios coupling mechanical creep and biodegradation. The residual compression ratios were also calculated and compared to the compression ratios coupling mechanical creep and bio-compression. The waste settlement coupling mechanical creep and biodegradation was compared with the residual settlement and the duration. In addition, the relationship between the long-term waste settlement mechanisms and the history of landfill gas (LFG) collected at a multi-stage MSW landfill was analyzed.
Materials and methods
Settlement phases and mechanisms
Based on the soil mechanics theory, Sowers11 described the stress- and time-dependent settlements (SSD and STD) as primary and secondary settlements. Bjarngard and Edgers33 subdivided the time-dependent settlement into settlement by mechanical creep and the settlement by biodegradation of organic matter in waste. Hossain and Gabr7 proposed that the time-dependent settlement could be further subdivided into residual settlement by mechanical creep (SRS). Chen et al.34 recently stated that mechanical creep and biodegradation should be coupled in the waste settlement mechanisms because it is difficult to discern the two settlement behaviors in the settlement curves measured at landfill sites. Based on their statement, the waste settlement mechanisms can be divided into three stages (Eq. (1); Fig. 1).
The stress-dependent settlement (Stage I in Fig. 1) primarily occurs by additional weight of waste, loading, and the discharge of gas or water in the voids35. After the stress-dependent settlement, the time-dependent settlement dominates the waste settlement mechanism. This settlement continues for months, years, or even decades, depending on the waste composition and landfill design1,3,4,5. In this study, the time-dependent settlements were subdivided into waste settlement coupling mechanical creep and biodegradation (SMB; Stage II in Fig. 1) and residual settlement (SRS; Stage III in Fig. 1). Hossain and Gabr7 stated that waste settlement by mechanical creep occurs in landfill sites between 0 and 1000 days after the primary settlement is completed. In terms of the settlement by biodegradation, i.e., bio-compression, geotechnical researchers5,13,19,33,36 reported that bio-compression is a significantly important factor distinguishing the settlement mechanism of soil and waste, and it is usually reported to be 12–21% of the initial waste height in the sanitary landfills for decades. The residual settlement is the final stage of the waste settlement mechanism. This settlement is caused by the physical mechanisms of waste particles such as physical yielding, reorientation, and raveling2,7,21.
Site condition
The Gimpo Metropolitan Landfill (GML), a multi-stage MSW landfill where dykes are constructed after landfilling for subsequent waste fills, was constructed on soft clay ground with an area of 14.63 km2 in Gimpo areas of the Republic of Korea. The GML is one of the biggest landfills in the world. The municipal solid waste (MSW) was buried in the GML since 1992. The GML, composed of four landfills and two complexes (Fig. 2), operates as a sanitary landfill. The thickness of each lift in a landfill was designed to be 5 m, in which the thickness of the waste was 4.5 m and the cover soil was 0.5 m. The initial thickness of each lift varied between 4 and 8 m according to the condition of waste disposal. The area of landfill #1, which was focused in this study, is 4.09 km2, and 6.40 × 107 tons of waste were buried over 8 years, i.e., from 1992 to 200037. The landfill duration for each block is listed in Table 1. After landfill #1 was closed, stabilization operations, such as final covers and pipes to collect and transport LFGs, were installed on the uppermost part of the landfill from September 2002 to December 2002. Currently, there is a golf course on the landfill as a public space. The information related to landfill #2–#4, e.g., area, capacity, and landfilling duration, was delineated in Jo and Jang38.
During landfilling, the MSW was buried in the eleven blocks (B, C, D, E, G, H, I, J, K, L, and M) and construction and demolition (C&D) wastes, i.e., sewage sludge, dredge soil, industrial waste, construction waste, and textiles, were buried in the O, P, and Q blocks. In which, the blocks mean the cells as terminology for portions of MSW landfills. The proportions of MSW and C&D are shown in Table S1. The waste disposal in the O, P, and Q blocks was suspended due to the abnormal breaking of the blocks.
The organic matter proportion and unit weight of the MSW buried in the eleven waste blocks (B, C, D, E, G, H, I, J, K, L, and M) and the waste height for each block are listed in Table 1. The organic matter was determined by the following procedures; a) calculated the content of organic matter for each lift based on the waste disposal history in Table S2. In which, the annual organic matter was utilized the value shown in Table S3; b) add up the content of organic matter for each lift; c) the added up value was averaged. The unit weight of each block in Table 1 was also determined by the same method as the organic matter. Jo and Jang38 determined the annual unit weight of waste in landfill #1 using the data measured at earth pressure plates. In which, the value presented in Jo and Jang38 was utilized in this study. The organic matter consisted of food, paper, wood, textiles, rubber, and leather. The detailed composition of the organic matter in each block is presented in Table S4. The ranges of organic matter and unit weight for each block were 63.15–64.95% and 10.97–10.99 kN/m3, respectively. The gravimetric water content of MSW is reported to be 113.7%, which is not an annually reported value. Once the waste disposal was completed, the waste height for each block ranged between 39.06 and 44.10 m (41.71 m on average) (Table 1).
Waste settlements post-closure
After the landfill was closed, from December 1999 (M block) to September 2000 (K block), new settlement plates were placed on the surfaces of eleven blocks (B, C, D, E, G, H, I, J, K, L, and M; Fig. 2). There is no settlement plate on O, P, and Q blocks because the landfilling was suspended owing to the abnormal breaking of blocks. The long-term waste settlements of the eleven blocks were measured continuously at the new settlement plates, and this study utilized data collected over 21 years, i.e., from post-closure to December 2021. During this period, the cumulative waste settlements measured from the settlement plates ranged between 5.91 and 9.06 m which corresponded to the cumulative vertical strains ranging from 15.15 to 21.54% (17.21% on average). Based on the content of organic matter buried in landfill #1 (Table S4), the average value is 64.35%. Since about 64% of the total landfill volume has potential waste settlement possibility, the additional waste settlement will be considered for each block. The waste settlement curves of the B, C, D, E, G, H, I, J, K, L, and M blocks show some common trends, with steep slopes initially, which then decrease gradually and form specific inflection points in between (see Fig. 3).
Results and discussion
Determination of \(C_{{{\text{MB}}}}^{{\prime }}\) and t RS based on time-series analysis
Since the MSW was buried in landfill #1 over a long-term period, the old and fresh wastes varied from the lower to upper lifts. In landfill #1, the biodegradation of old waste in the lower lifts was significantly completed, and that of fresh wastes in the upper lifts was active. Because MSW decomposition was different for each lift, it was difficult to discern between the mechanical creep and bio-compression on waste settlement curves measured after closure (see Fig. 3). Therefore, in this study, mechanical creep and bio-compression were coupled, and the waste settlement characteristics, i.e., compression ratio, were expressed as C′MB.
The coupled compression ratio with mechanical creep and bio-compression (C′MB) was calculated using Eq. (2), and the time history of C′MB is shown in Fig. 4. This equation was modified based on settlement models which were proposed by Sowers11 and Bjargard and Edger33. In addition, the starting date of waste settlement by mechanical creep and biodegradation (tMB) was determined as the number of days elapsed from the mid-point time of landfilling duration because landfill #1 was multi-stage landfill and the age of waste between the lower and upper lifts varied. The compression ratio increased after landfill #1 was closed because biodegradation in fresh waste was active and the bio-compression was the dominant MSW settlement mechanism. The compression ratio decreased after the peak value was obtained. In this study, the peak value was determined to be C′MB, and the elapsed day with the peak value was determined to be the date (tRS) when the reduction of biodegradation began and the residual settlement mechanism became dominant. The C′MB ranged from 0.195 to 0.293 (0.233 on average). The tRS was distributed in the range of 3821 to 5402 days (4396 days on average). These values were calculated based on the initial date of landfill. The tRS and C′MB for each block are listed in Table 2.
Determination of \(C_{{{\text{RS}}}}^{{\prime }}\)
The residual compression ratio (\(C_{{{\text{RS}}}}^{{\prime }}\)) was calculated using Eq. (3) based on the field-monitored long-term waste settlement data. This equation was suggested by Hossain and Gabr7 based on the theory of soil-mechanics. These ratios ranged from \(C_{{{\text{RS}}}}^{{\prime }}\) = 0.047 to \(C_{{{\text{RS}}}}^{{\prime }}\) = 0.103. The average value of \(C_{{{\text{RS}}}}^{{\prime }}\) was 0.068 (Table 2). The average of \(C_{{{\text{RS}}}}^{{\prime }}\) was approximately 0.29 times the average of \(C_{{{\text{MB}}}}^{{\prime }}\). This implies that biodegradation was significantly reduced in the MSW settlement behavior during this period.
Comparison between waste settlement coupling mechanical creep and biodegradation and residual settlement
The waste settlement after the landfill was closed was divided into settlement coupling mechanical creep and biodegradation (SMB) and residual settlement (SRS). The settlements determined in landfill #1 are listed in Table 2. The SMB and SRS ranged from 417.9 to 720.8 cm and from 105.8 to 325.6 cm, respectively. The average values of SMB and SRS are 534.2 cm and 185.4 cm with durations of 1996 days (\(\approx\) 5.5 years) and 5868 days (\(\approx\) 16.1 years), respectively. The average of SMB is 2.9 times larger than that of SRS, and the duration of SMB is 0.3 times that of SRS.
Relationship between landfill gas and settlement mechanism
In landfill #1, the chemical oxygen demand (COD) and pH of the leachate were measured after the landfilling began. The methane (CH4) gas was collected since 2000 because the gas collection systems were installed after the landfill was closed. The variations in CH4 gas, and COD and pH of the leachate measured at landfill #1 are shown in Fig. 5. The CH4 gas increased 3 years after the landfill closure and started to decrease after the peak value in 2004, which corresponds to tRS, the start time of residual settlement. It implies that there was remnant CH4 content in the LFG and low-level biodegradation was still generated in the waste buried for more than 10 years after the residual settlement began. In addition, after the tRS, the slope of waste settlement curves gradually decreased (Fig. 3) and the compression ratio coupling mechanical creep and bio-compression (\(C_{{{\text{MB}}}}^{{\prime }}\)) also decreased (Fig. 4). It means that the waste settlement mechanisms have transitioned from the biocompression stage that the biodegradation of organic material is dominant (StageII) to the residual settlement stage that final mechanical creep is dominant (Stage III) as the content of CH4 gas was reduced in LFG.
Conclusions
In this study, the long-term waste settlement of a multi-stage MSW landfill was measured over 21 years after the closure of a landfill, and a field-monitored dataset was investigated. The waste characteristics and settlement behaviors were analyzed using time-series analysis. The following conclusions were drawn from the results:
Since the wastes were buried from the lower to upper lifts at different times over 8 years, it was difficult to discern the mechanical creep and bio-compression on the waste settlement curves measured during the postclosure of the landfill.
The tRS and \(C_{{{\text{MB}}}}^{{\prime }}\) were calculated through time-series analysis. The \(C_{{{\text{MB}}}}^{{\prime }}\) increased after landfill #1 was closed because bio-compression was still dominant in the MSW settlement mechanisms. The trend of \(C_{{{\text{MB}}}}^{{\prime }}\) decreased after the peak value was obtained, and this peak value was determined to be the \(C_{{{\text{MB}}}}^{{\prime }}\) for each block in landfill #1. The elapsed day with the peak value was determined to be the tRS. The C′MB ranged from 0.195 to 0.293 (0.233 on average). The tRS was distributed in the range of 3821 to 5402 days (4396 days on average).
The \(C_{{{\text{RS}}}}^{{\prime }}\) was also calculated, and it ranged from \(C_{{{\text{RS}}}}^{{\prime }}\) = 0.047 to \(C_{{{\text{RS}}}}^{{\prime }}\) = 0.103. The average value of \(C_{{{\text{RS}}}}^{{\prime }}\) was 0.068. The average of \(C_{{{\text{RS}}}}^{{\prime }}\) was approximately 0.29 times the average of \(C_{{{\text{MB}}}}^{{\prime }}\). This implies that biodegradation was significantly reduced in the MSW settlement behavior during this period. In addition, the SMB was 2.9 times larger than the SRS. The duration of SMB was determined to be 0.3 times that of SRS.
The landfill gas (LFG), especially methane (CH4) gas, was still generated after the tRS. This implies that remnant CH4 content existed in the LFG and low-level biodegradation still occurred in the waste buried for more than 10 years after the residual settlement began. In addition, after the tRS, the slope of waste settlement curves gradually decreased and \(C_{{{\text{MB}}}}^{{\prime }}\) also decreased. It means that the waste settlement mechanisms were transitioned from the biocompression stage that the biodegradation of organic material is dominant (Stage II) to the residual settlement stage that final mechanical creep is dominant (Stage III) as the content of CH4 gas was reduced in LFG.
The findings of this study could help to decide the appropriate construction time for public facilities on the closed landfill sites after the residual settlement is initiated. We also expect that the compression ratios, i.e., \(C_{{{\text{MB}}}}^{{\prime }}\) and \(C_{{{\text{RS}}}}^{{\prime }}\), can be appropriately used for evaluating parameters of other waste settlement models.
Data availability
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this manuscript [and its supplementary information fles].
Abbreviations
- S T :
-
Total settlement
- S SD :
-
Stress-dependent settlement (= Spri)
- S TD :
-
Time-dependent settlement (= SMB + SRS)
- S pri :
-
Primary settlement (= immediate settlement)
- S MB :
-
Waste settlement coupling mechanical creep and biodegradation
- S RS :
-
Residual settlement by mechanical creep
- \(C_{{{\text{MB}}}}^{{\prime }}\) :
-
Compression ratio coupling mechanical creep and bio-compression
- \(C_{{{\text{RS}}}}^{{\prime }}\) :
-
Residual compression ratio
- H :
-
Waste height once the landfilling is completed
- t MB :
-
Starting date of waste settlement by mechanical creep and biodegradation (days)
- t RS :
-
Starting date of residual settlement (days)
- t :
-
Elapsed days (days)
References
Sharma, H. D. & De, A. Municipal solid waste landfill settlement: Postclosure perspectives. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 133, 619–629. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2007)133:6(619) (2007).
Bareither, C. A. & Kwak, S. B. Assessment of municipal solid waste settlement models based on field-scale data analysis. Waste Manag. 42, 101–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.04.011 (2015).
Gourc, J. P., Staub, M. J. & Conte, M. Decoupling MSW settlement into mechanical and biochemical processes-modelling and validation on large scale setups. Waste Manag. 30, 1556–1568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2010.03.004 (2010).
Marques, A. C. M., Filz, G. M. & Vilar, O. M. Composite compressibility model for municipal solid waste. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 129, 372–378. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2003)129:4(372) (2003).
Sivakumar Babu, G. L., Reddy, K. R., Chouskey, S. K. & Kulkarni, H. S. Prediction of long-term municipal solid waste landfill settlement using constitutive model. Pract. Period. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste Manag. 14, 39–150. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HZ.1944-8376.0000024 (2010).
Grisolia, M. & Napoleoni, Q. Deformability of waste and settlement of sanitary landfills. In: vol ‘95 World Congress on Waste Management. International Solid Waste Association (1995).
Hossain, M. S. & Gabr, M. A. Prediction of Municipal Solid Waste Landfill Settlement with Leachate Recirculation. GSP 142. Waste Containment and Remediation, Geo-Frontiers Congress, 1–14 (2005).
Fei, X. & Zekkos, D. Coupled experimental assessment of physico-biochemical characteristics of municipal solid waste undergoing enhanced biodegradation. Géotechnique 68, 1031–1043. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgeot.16.P.253 (2018).
Kumar, G., Reddy, K. R. & Foster, C. Modeling elasto-visco-bio-plastic mechanical behaviior of municipal solid waste in landfills. Acta Geotech. 16, 1061–1081. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-020-01072-x (2021).
Bente, S., Krase, V. & Dinkler, D. Model for degradation-induced settlements as part of a coupled landfill model. Int. J. Numer. Anal. Meth. Geomech. 41(12), 1390–1410. https://doi.org/10.1002/nag.2687 (2017).
Sowers, G. F. Settlement of waste disposal fills. In: Proceedings 8th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Moscow, vol. 22, 207–210 (1973).
Gabr, M. A. & Valero, S. N. Geotechnical properties of municipal solid waste. Geotech Test J. 18, 241–251. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ10324J (1995).
El-Fadel, M., Shazbak, S., Saliby, E. & Leckie, J. Comparative assessment of settlement models for municipal solid waste landfill applications. Waste Manag Res. 17, 347–368. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1399-3070.1999.00059.x (1999).
Hossain, M. S., Gabr, M. A. & Barlaz, M. A. Relationship of compressibility parameters to municipal solid waste decomposition. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 129, 1151–1158. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2003)129:12(1151) (2003).
Olivier, F. & Gourc, J. P. Hydro-mechanical behavior of municipal solid waste subject to leachate recirculation in a large-scale compression reactor cell. Waste Manag. 27, 44–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2006.01.025 (2007).
Swati, M. & Joseph, K. Settlement analysis of fresh and partially stabilized municipal solid waste in simulated controlled dumps and bioreactor landfills. Waste Manag. 28, 1355–1363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2007.06.011 (2008).
Bareither, C. A. et al. Deer track bioreactor experiment: Field-scale evaluation of municipal solid waste bioreactor performance. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 138, 658–670. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000636 (2012).
Bareither, C. A., Benson, C. H., Edil, T. B. & Barlaz, M. A. Abiotic and biotic compression of municipal solid waste. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 138, 877–888. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000660 (2012).
Abichou, T., Barlaz, M. A., Green, R. & Hater, G. The outer loop bioreactor: A case study of settlement monitoring and solids decomposition. Waste Manag. 33, 2035–2047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2013.02.005 (2013).
Bareither, C. A., Benson, C. H. & Edil, T. B. Compression of municipal solid waste in bioreactor landfills: Mechanical creep and biocompression. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 139, 1007–1021. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000835 (2013).
Fei, X. & Zekkos, D. Factors influencing long-term settlement of municipal solid waste in laboratory bioreactor landfill simulator. J. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste Am. Soc. Civil Eng. 17, 259–271. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)HZ.2153-5515.0000167 (2013).
Siddiqui, A. A. Pretreated municipal solid waste behavior in laboratory scale landfill. Int. J. Sustain Dev. Pl 9, 263–276. https://doi.org/10.2495/SDP-V9-N2-263-276 (2014).
Fei, X., Zekkos, D. & Raskin, L. Archaeal community structure in leachate and solid waste is correlated to methane generation and volume reduction during biodegradation of municipal solid waste. Waste Manag. 36, 184–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2014.10.027 (2015).
Sivakumar Babu, G. L. & Lakshmikanthan, P. Estimation of the components of municipal solid waste settlement. Waste Manag. Res. 33, 30–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X14558667 (2015).
Fei, X., Zekkos, D. & Raskin, L. Quantification of parameters influencing methane generation due to biodegradation of municipal solid waste in landfills and laboratory experiments. Waste Manag. 55, 276–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.10.015 (2016).
Zhao, Y. R., Liu, T. J., Chen, X. S., Xie, Q. & Huang, L. P. The effect of temperature on the biodegradation properties of municipal solid waste. Waste Manag. Res. 34, 265–274. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X15622811 (2016).
Falamaki, A. et al. Laboratory simulation of aeration on municipal solid waste from Barmshoor landfill. Int. J. Civil Eng. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40999-019-00397-3 (2019).
Top, S. et al. Investigation of solid waste characteristics in field-scale landfill test cells. Glob. NEST J. 21, 153–162. https://doi.org/10.30955/gnj.002982 (2019).
Gu, Z., Chen, W., Wang, F. & Li, Q. A pilot-scale comparative study of bioreactor landfills for leachate decontamination and municipal solid waste stabilization. Waste Manage 103, 113–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.12.023 (2020).
He, H. & Fei, X. Scaling up laboratory column testing results to predict coupled methane generation and biological settlement in full-scale municipal solid waste landfills. Waste Manage 115, 25–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.07.018 (2020).
Xu, H. et al. Characterization of compression behaviors of high food waste content (HFWC) MSW and no food waste content (NFWC) MSW in China. Waste Manage. 103, 305–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.12.036 (2020).
Sohoo, I., Ritzkowski, M. & Kuchta, K. Influence of moisture content and leachate recirculation on oxygen consumption and waste stabilization in post aeration phase of landfill operation. Sci Total Environ. 773, 145584. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145584 (2021).
Bjarngard, A. & Edgers, L. Settlement of municipal solid waste landfills. In: Proceedings 13th Annual Madison Waste Conference, University of Wisconsin, 192–205 (1990).
Chen, Y., Ke, H., Fredlund, D. G., Zhan, L. & Xie, Y. Secondary compression of municipal solid wastes and a compression model for predicting settlement of municipal solid waste landfills. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 136, 706–717. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000273 (2010).
Durmusoglu, E., Sanchez, I. M. & Corapcioglu, M. Y. Permeability and compression characteristics of municipal solid waste samples. Environ. Geol. 50, 773–786. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-006-0249-6 (2006).
Hunte, C. A., Hettiaratchi, J. P. A., Hettiarachchi, C. H. & Meegoda J. N. Determination of waste properties from settlement behavior of a full scale waste cell operated as a landfill bioreactor. In: Geo-Frontiers 2011: Advances in Geotechnical Engineering, 1404–1413 (2011).
GLC. Statistics Annual Book of Gimpo Metropolitan Landfill in 2020 (Gimpo Metropolitan Landfill Corporation, 2021).
Jo, Y. S. & Jang, Y. S. Comparison of waste settlement characteristics for two landfills disposed in long sequential periods. Waste Manag. 131, 433–442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2021.07.003 (2021).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study's conception and design. The data analyses were performed by [Y.S.J.]. The first draft was written by [Y.S.J.] and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Young-Seok, J., Wan-Kyu, Y., Sung-Phil, H. et al. Coupled mechanical creep and bio-compression and residual settlement in a multi-stage municipal solid waste landfill, Korea. Sci Rep 12, 19058 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-21872-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-21872-3
- Springer Nature Limited