1 Introduction

Productivity is considered a key role in any industry [41]. In construction, productivity plays a pivotal role in determining the success of projects. It reflects the substantial impact of resources in the construction sector, implying that any productivity improvement will significantly enhance project effectiveness, including quality, cost, and time [70]. With a major presence in job creation and economic efficiency, the construction sector forms a cornerstone of most national economies [36, 40]. Representing a significant share of national economies, ranging from 8 to 10% of GDP, the construction sector fosters economic growth generates employment opportunities for a large number of people and serves as a vital link between the economy and other industries [20, 116]. The quest for enhanced construction productivity has been a persistent focus for both government and industry stakeholders, as it serves as a barometer of operational efficiency [41]. Efforts to enhance productivity in construction have not yet fully translated into significant gains, as the industry still falls behind other sectors in efficiency [41, 113]. Aligning with previous studies [93, 106, 108, 125], construction productivity growth has been sluggish or negative in many nations, generally lagging that of other sectors. Low productivity stands as a significant challenge that the construction industry in many countries faces worldwide. [11, 27, 50, 66]. Low construction productivity can trigger a chain of negative consequences for the economy, including rising prices, social instability, and a deterioration of inter-personal relations [21, 23, 96]. Numerous studies have shown that project managers can effectively manage project risks and achieve project objectives by proactively identifying and addressing the factors that impede construction efficiency [15, 40, 56, 58, 59, 88].

Construction productivity has been a cornerstone of extensive research for decades, with global studies examining its challenges, measurement methods, influencing factors, technological advancements, productivity models, industry-wide trends, and frameworks for improvement [21]. While extensive academic research has been conducted on construction productivity, there is a dearth of comprehensive literature reviews that synthesize and consolidate the diverse findings from these studies, hindering both practitioners and researchers seeking a holistic understanding of the field.

Consolidating and analyzing existing literature reviews on construction productivity would provide a valuable foundation for future research, enabling researchers to gain a deeper understanding of the field and conduct more focused and efficient studies. This necessitates a comprehensive analysis of global trends in construction productivity research, along with the identification of new research directions. In this spirit, the present study undertakes a systematic review of construction productivity research published in the twenty-first century.

2 Methods and materials

This study utilizes scientometric analysis as the core methodology to explore the field of research. This approach has become a well-established method for interpreting and assessing large sets of bibliometric data for a range of applications [105]. This method alleviates the difficulties inherent in manual reviews when attempting to systematically map the intricate linkages among authors, keywords, affiliations, journals, and countries within the research field [100]. The data sample was extracted from Scopus, widely regarded as the world's most extensive peer-reviewed database [117]. Scopus offers comprehensive platforms for extracting bibliometric data, yet the number of publications indexed in these two databases for the same research area may vary [44, 118]. Scopus is widely recognized as a superior resource for bibliometric data compared to other search engines like Google Scholar, PubMed, and Web of Science, offering greater accuracy and broader coverage [30]. Moreover, the Scopus search engine has been employed in comparable literature review research conducted in the construction management domain [44, 45, 63, 119, 120, 122].

To gather a broader and more dependable collection of bibliometric data, the most commonly used interchangeable keywords for construction productivity were employed to extract datasets. For a thorough analysis and clear presentation of construction productivity research trends, a comprehensive search was conducted within the "title/abstract/keyword" fields of the Scopus search engine. The search terms included “construction productivity” or “construction,” and “productivity” or “construction performance” or “construction,” and “performance.” Utilizing the “title/abstract/keyword” functionality of the Scopus database and excluding time restrictions, this search yielded 13,441 publications (up to September 2023), encompassing studies beyond the construction management domain. Consequently, search combination functions were implemented to refine data retrieval. All publications in the selected journals, which were published under the broad groups of “editorial,” “book review,” “articles in press,” “letter to the editor,” “closures and discussion,” “introduction,” and “briefing sheet,”, were removed from the analysis [63, 87]. To narrow down the scope of journals considered and focus on the most relevant research, the “source title” field was utilized to restrict the search to publications within the period between 2000 and 2023. This selection focused on top journals in construction management, considering the widespread recognition that articles published in these journals represent groundbreaking research contributions [91] and are best suited to a science mapping application. In addition, previous scientometric analysis has scientifically mapped research publications in these high-impact journals [121]. In summary, 710 publications from top-tier construction journals were selected for analysis. The extracted bibliometric data was exported in “Comma-Separated Values (CSV)” format and imported into VOSviewer software for comprehensive visualization of the construction productivity research landscape. Figure 1 illustrates the research framework employed in this study.

Fig. 1
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Research framework for this study

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3 Findings and discussions

3.1 Geographical distribution of construction productivity research

Research drives industrial progress and policy, so nations with prolific research sectors gain an edge [45, 87]. To pinpoint the global powerhouses in construction productivity research, we simply counted publications from each region/nation. This analysis unveiled key players shaping the field. Recognizing and collaborating with these leaders can unlock expertise, spark technology exchange, and fuel joint research funding. By partnering with the best, other nations can accelerate their construction progress and boost overall efficiency.

Table 1 highlights the contributions of the most prolific countries (those with at least 20 publications) to construction productivity research. The United States, Canada, and Australia emerged as the top three countries in terms of publication output, with 124, 98, and 79 studies on construction productivity, respectively. Figure 2 represents the global landscape of construction productivity research, generated by setting minimum thresholds of five for country documents and 13 for citations. Out of the 116 countries engaged in construction productivity research globally, 44 met these thresholds. Notably, approximately 60% (116 out of 195) of all countries in the world are actively involved in construction productivity research. The global distribution of research clusters, represented by color-coded nodes (cluster 1: 9 items; cluster 2: 9 items; cluster 3: 9 items; cluster 4: 8 items; cluster 5: 4 items; and cluster 6: 2 items), clearly indicates the geographical concentration of research efforts. Furthermore, the United States stands out as the most significant contributor to construction productivity research, as represented by its large node size. Interestingly, despite their relatively small land areas, Hong Kong and Singapore exhibit remarkable research performance, with average publication counts of 41 and 32, respectively, and normalized citation scores of 32.61 and 22.44, respectively. These findings underscore the competitiveness and significant contributions of scholars from these territories to construction productivity research.

Table 1 Most contributing country/territory on construction productivity
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Fig. 2
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Country/territory distribution of on construction productivity

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North America stands out as the most influential continent in construction productivity research, with the United States and Canada leading in both publication output and average citations. Notably, every continent, except South America, has at least one country actively contributing to the field. Among the top-producing countries, Africa has the least representation (only Egypt), while Asia has the most (6 countries). This geographic distribution of research highlights the importance of considering regional contexts when examining construction productivity. The significant knowledge gaps in South America, Africa, and Europe indicate a need for further research in these regions. Conducting studies in these areas can enhance stakeholders’ understanding of construction productivity and provide valuable guidance for construction managers to improve project performance.

3.2 Active contributors to construction productivity research

According to a comprehensive analysis of publications retrieved from Scopus, a bibliographic coupling network of researchers on construction productivity research revealed that 64 individuals have published more than five papers in this domain. The topmost productive authors, defined as those who have published at least 10 papers, are presented in Table 2. Notably, Goodrum, P.M. stands out as the most prolific author, with 30 construction productivity publications cited an impressive 1,078 times, resulting in a remarkable normalized citation score of 35.93. Closely following are Haas, C.T. and Hanna A.S., each with 23 publications. Collectively, these top-producing researchers account for nearly 30% of the total volume of published construction productivity documents, garnering a combined citation count of 6,027. Their contributions have significantly shaped the field of construction productivity research.

Table 2 Authors with highest publications on construction productivity
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An analysis of bibliographic records from published construction productivity research can be used to identify key research institutes and uncover a network of institutions with a strong commitment to and interest in enhancing construction productivity. According to Scopus records, approximately 160 research institutes have contributed over 710 construction productivity articles to the selected journals. The top-producing institutes are listed in Table 3, each having published at least 15 publications in this field between 2000 and 2023. The 17 most productive research institutes accounted for nearly half (47%) of the total volume of published construction productivity literature. Concordia University, the University of Alberta, and The University of Texas at Austin stood as the top three contributors, with 40, 36, and 33 publications, respectively. Their significant contributions have greatly enriched the field of construction productivity research.

Table 3 Organizations with highest publications on construction productivity
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3.3 Most productive journals publish construction productivity

Many studies have emphasized the importance of the analysis of academic journals in any scientific field [95]. By analyzing academic journals, readers can identify the most reputable and informative sources for their research needs. Authors can also determine the most appropriate journals to publish their work, increasing the visibility and impact of their research. Moreover, journal publishers can refine their journal's focus and objectives based on these findings, while institutions and libraries can optimize their resource allocation for journal subscriptions, ensuring access to the most relevant and impactful research materials [46]. Academic journals serve as primary conduits for disseminating groundbreaking research and innovations in academia. These journals adhere to well-defined scope and boundaries, ensuring the rigor and relevance of the published material. Identifying key journals in the field of construction productivity research provides a crucial foundation for systematically mapping research trends and developments [118].

Figure 3 depicts the bibliographic link network of 17 construction journals that have made significant contributions to construction productivity research, publishing at least 10 articles and accumulating at least 60 citations each. This map, generated using VOSviewer’s source citation network, employs a distance-based layout, where the node size (journal) reflects the journal's citation impact. For example, the Journal of Construction Engineering and Management; Automation in Construction; and Construction Management and Economics have relatively larger nodes than the rest of the research journals, highlighting their higher impact on construction productivity research publications.

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Network of prominent research journals in construction productivity

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Table 4 unveils the top academic journals in construction productivity research, based on data retrieved from the Scopus core collection database. The Journal of Construction Engineering and Management emerges as the frontrunner, boasting an impressive 225 published articles and a total of 6,893 citations. Automation in Construction and Construction Management and Economics take second and third place, respectively, with 91 and 76 construction productivity papers each. Notably, these three journals collectively account for over half of the total volume of published construction productivity documents among the selected construction journals. This finding in the line with the top journals has the most publications on related issues on construction productivity in prior review studies [5, 21, 40, 41, 120].

Table 4 Most productive journals publications on construction productivity
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3.4 Co-occurrence network of keywords

Keyword analysis provides an opportunity to discover key research areas [97]. Keywords serve as crucial tools for indexing research articles in databases and effectively capture the core themes of research publications. By mapping all keywords extracted from a collection of publications, researchers can gain a comprehensive understanding of the knowledge domain and identify key research areas in the field [118]. The keywords network offers a comprehensive representation of the knowledge domain, illuminating the range of topics covered and the intellectual connections and organization of these topics [110].

The co-occurrence network of author keywords extracted from 710 construction productivity research articles is presented in Fig. 4. This network was constructed following the best practices recommended by [42,43,44,45]. The analysis type was set to "co-occurrence," the counting method was set to "Fractional counting," and the unit of analysis was restricted to "Author keywords." The minimum number of occurrences for a keyword was set to 5 by default, resulting in 135 out of 2519 keywords meeting the threshold. Utilizing these filtered keywords, a co-occurrence network (Fig. 4) was generated, accompanied by a table summarizing the total occurrences and total link strength for each keyword (Table 5).

Fig. 4
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Co-occurrence network of keywords

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Table 5 Most active keywords in construction productivity research
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Table 5 highlights the top 25 most commonly used keywords, each appearing over 45 times in the 710 construction productivity research articles. The size of each keyword's node directly reflects its frequency of occurrence as an author keyword. Keywords positioned closer together indicate a higher likelihood of co-occurrence within the research articles. It is evident that the keywords “productivity,” “construction industry,” “project management,” “construction,” “construction projects,” and “labor productivity” are represented by substantially larger nodes compared to the rest of the keywords. Recognizing these frequently used keywords and incorporating them strategically into their articles can guide researchers towards enhancing the indexing and retrieval of their work.

3.5 Key findings of studies on construction productivity

3.5.1 Research methods adopted for studies on construction productivity

To delve deeper into the research methodologies employed to investigate construction productivity issues, a comprehensive analysis of publications in selected construction journals was conducted. The study [31] identified five primary research approaches: experiment, action research, survey, ethnographic research, and case study. Experiments, surveys, and case studies are prevalent research methodologies employed in the construction industry [31, 41]. According to the study by [7], conducting experiments in construction productivity research can be a time-consuming and expensive endeavor, often yielding results that lack generalizability due to the diverse challenges encountered in different projects. In contrast, the case study approach, while providing valuable insights into specific projects, may not yield results that can be universally applied [31]. Empirical methods, particularly questionnaire surveys, have been the primary approaches adopted in previous research to identify construction productivity issues.

In most construction productivity research, the research procedure followed by researchers to identify and assess factors influencing construction productivity typically involves five main stages: (1) Literature Review: Researchers conduct a thorough review of existing literature to identify key research findings published in relevant journals; (2) Factor Identification: Based on the literature review, researchers compile a set of factors that are predominantly considered to influence construction productivity. Sometimes, focus groups, interviews, or case studies may be conducted alongside the literature review to supplement factor identification; (3) Survey Piloting: A small-scale pilot survey is conducted to ensure the questionnaire's readability, accuracy, and comprehensiveness for the target participants; (4) Factor Evaluation and Ranking: Important factors are evaluated and ranked based on appropriate measurement methods. Sometimes, focus groups, interviews, or case studies may be conducted to validate the survey findings; and (5) Discussion and Conclusion: The highest-ranked factors within the overall ranking are discussed and analyzed to draw conclusions about the most significant factors affecting construction productivity.

For measurement methods to assess the impact levels of CFs affecting construction labor productivity (CLP), most researchers used the relative importance index method in their studies [6, 7, 50]. Several different approaches were undertaken by the previous studies such as frequency index [68, 104], severity index [18, 19, 68, 104], factor analysis [2, 53], mean score [74, 77], system dynamics model [4, 49, 78], regression analysis [35, 54], fuzzy synthetic evaluation [39], simulation [47, 98, 99], fuzzy fault tree analysis [96], structural equation model [24], DEMATEL model [79], or risk mapping [38].

3.5.2 Research on construction productivity-related issues

One of the primary research areas pertains to the issues and concerns affecting worker productivity. The researchers meticulously examined and described various factors impacting productivity, such as innovative construction methods, productivity determinants, job-frequency dynamics, the relationship between efficiency and job roles, and other crucial aspects. They then offered practical recommendations and steps to address these challenges and promote improved productivity in the construction industry. As an example, the study conducted by [8] explored the influence of rework timeframe, frequency, and duration on measurable performance metrics. It utilized even-flow production theory to evaluate rework in the residential construction sector, with the objective of minimizing disruptions to the construction production process and boosting productivity. According to [9] cost management, scheduling, design procedures, labor training, and quality control have long been recognized as areas with substantial potential for productivity improvement. In contrast, materials packaging and global advancements in construction technology have consistently been perceived as having a limited impact on enhancing construction productivity. Furthermore, the study by [48] identified coordination among project participants as the most crucial factor with the most significant positive influence on cost performance.

3.5.3 Smart construction and sustainable cities as new paradigms for sustainable productivity

The convergence of smart construction and sustainable cities creates a synergistic relationship that fosters sustainable productivity. Smart construction technologies can be harnessed to design and build sustainable infrastructure, while sustainable city initiatives can provide a framework for implementing smart construction practices [10]. It leverages innovative technologies, data-driven insights, and collaborative governance to optimize resource utilization, reduce environmental impacts, and improve the quality of life for urban residents [14]. Promoting smart construction and sustainable cities can have several benefits for improving sustainable productivity: (1) Efficient resource utilization: Smart city technologies can help optimize the use of resources such as energy, water, and waste management [83]. Using advanced sensors, data analytics, and automation, cities can identify areas of high resource consumption and implement strategies to reduce waste and increase efficiency. This leads to more sustainable resource utilization and improved productivity; (2) Improved transportation systems: Smart cities focus on integrating smart transportation systems, such as intelligent traffic management, electric vehicles, and public transport optimization [82]. These initiatives can reduce congestion, lower greenhouse gas emissions, and enhance the overall efficiency of transportation networks. A well-connected and efficient transportation system allows people and goods to move more easily, reducing travel times and enhancing productivity; (3) Energy-efficient buildings: Smart cities adopt sustainable building practices, such as energy-efficient design, smart lighting systems, and renewable energy integration [115]. These measures can reduce energy consumption and contribute to lower greenhouse gas emissions. Energy-efficient buildings can also provide healthier and more comfortable environments, improving the well-being and productivity of occupants; (4) Enhanced data-driven decision-making: Smart cities rely heavily on data collection and analysis to make informed decisions [57]. The availability of real-time data enables city authorities to predict and respond to challenges more effectively. By leveraging data, city planners can identify bottlenecks, prioritize investments, and allocate resources more efficiently, leading to improved productivity and effective resource management; (5) Engaged and empowered citizens: Smart cities encourage citizen participation and engagement through digital platforms and collaborative initiatives [37]. By involving citizens in decision-making processes and providing them with access to information and services, cities can leverage the collective intelligence of the community. Engaged citizens can contribute innovative ideas, feedback, and solutions to improve productivity and sustainability; and (6) Innovation and economic growth: Smart and sustainable cities attract innovative businesses and industries [16]. By offering a supportive environment for tech startups, research institutions, and clean technology companies, cities can foster economic growth and create job opportunities. Innovation-driven growth contributes to a more sustainable and productive economy.

3.5.4 Recommendations to enhance labor productivity in the construction industry

Numerous prior studies have proposed various recommendations for improving CLP. The authors comprehensively reviewed several key recommendations as measures to enhance CLP, as illustrated in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5
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Main recommendations to enhance labor productivity in the construction industry

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Improving construction workforce skills

Strengthening labor skills undeniably occupies the prime position in driving CLP advancements [51]. Several researchers advocated for the participation of construction laborers in regular training programs to acquire practical skills and gain real-world experience, thereby enabling them to enhance their essential skills [6, 43, 65, 96]. Enriching the skill set and experience of construction workers is among the most effective enhancement strategies that construction practitioners can employ to boost labor productivity [79]. To enhance the experience of construction laborers and the managerial skills of construction parties, [70] advocated for the development of workshop and training programs. Additionally, [7, 60, 86] proposed the implementation of training courses and performance-based bonuses or rewards to improve supervision competency and construction workers' abilities. In Palestine, for instance, [68] advocated for the government to collaborate with various Palestinian organizations, such as the engineers association, contractors union, consultants union, construction companies, and universities, in organizing ongoing training programs to enhance the managerial skills of construction stakeholders and the overall workforce. Project management units should develop training programs to assist project managers in refining their managerial expertise and capabilities, maintaining on-site management activities, promoting quality, and preventing flawed outputs [34, 72, 90]. Construction managers can effectively utilize on-the-job training (OJT) to enable newcomers to acquire essential skills from experienced workers, simultaneously reducing training costs for contractors [103]. To mitigate the recruitment of unskilled and inexperienced labor, policymakers, in collaboration with labor agencies, should implement a comprehensive screening process for labor visa applications. This process should enforce minimum qualification standards for applicants, including verifiable documentation of prior construction experience, field-specific expertise, trade proficiency, and adequate communication skills [51].

Enhancing work motivation of construction workforce

Numerous studies have established that motivational factors play a crucial role in determining CLP. Therefore, enhancing work motivation is a viable strategy for improving CLP. [3, 62, 64, 92, 111]. Research undertaken by [22, 34, 64, 123] underscored the significance of promoting and rewarding construction workers as a strategy to elevate motivation, work satisfaction, and ultimately, productivity within the construction environment. Additionally, a majority of construction practitioners acknowledged that receiving rewards served as a clear acknowledgment of their abilities and contributions [75, 84]. Implementing reward systems within construction organizations serves as a powerful tool for demonstrating employee appreciation, fostering increased dedication, and ultimately enhancing labor productivity [94]. In addition, giving financial incentives has a positive impact on laborers’ motivation and work satisfaction [1, 7, 29, 52, 84, 101, 109]. Establishing incentive schemes that recognize and reward workers for completing tasks on time and to the required standards can effectively boost worker loyalty, morale, and productivity. Additionally, creating work schedules that accommodate workers' personal lives, both locally and externally, can help strike a balance between a safe work environment and a fulfilling personal life, further enhancing employee satisfaction and productivity [33]. While compensation and incentives serve as essential motivators, construction workers also seek fulfillment of their higher-level motivational needs. Failure to recognize and appreciate good work, along with disregarding workers' suggestions and opinions, can foster negative motivational forces, leading to decreased productivity [32]. Therefore, [68, 70] emphasize the importance of timely progress payments to contractors, as it directly impacts their ability to finance projects and compensate their employees promptly. Construction leaders must recognize the significance of autonomous motivation in enhancing CLP [102] and implement strategies to address the motivational needs of their workforce.

Accelerating management competency on construction sites

Ineffective site management can foster a hostile work environment and exacerbate conflicts among project stakeholders, leading to disputes, work stoppages, and consequently, severely hindering productivity [104]. Effective project monitoring and control are crucial for ensuring project quality, timeliness, and cost-effectiveness [73]. Workforce management plays a pivotal role in improving CLP, and leaders/managers must effectively manage and supervise their workforce [52, 84]. Supervisor incompetence is a prevalent issue, and workers place significant importance on the competence and effectiveness of their supervisors. Supervisors and inspectors should promptly and accurately address workers' queries regarding work requirements. Conversely, prolonged delays in responding to workers' questions can hinder productivity and compromise quality [62, 80]. Additionally, material management practices, such as timely material procurement and efficient tool and equipment management, significantly influence CLP and should be enhanced through the implementation of a robust material management system [69]. Furthermore, contractors should develop a tailored material supply plan for each construction project, considering the lead times for material procurement and the availability of materials in the local market to ensure timely material delivery [69, 71]. Enhancing CLP can be further achieved by employing experienced supervisors. Specifically [17], recommended implementing effective labor supervision practices to increase productive on-site hours for operatives and reduce the occurrence of faulty outputs. Additionally, organizing and implementing practical working hours, particularly during extreme temperatures and inclement weather conditions, can contribute to improved productivity. [25] emphasized the significant impact of effective project leadership, enhanced workflow planning and coordination, and improved management of change orders and site investigations on project outcomes.

Enhancing work environment and communication

A positive work environment characterized by strong relationships among workmates is a crucial factor for task success [3, 55] advocated for fostering a positive work climate with adequate working conditions to enhance individual job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and ultimately, peak performance, contributing to improved CLP. In the construction industry, the varying nature of work sites can lead to challenging conditions and an unsafe working environment, potentially resulting in accidents, delays, and reduced productivity [33]. Safety officers play a vital role in educating workers on essential safety guidelines and ensuring their adherence, thereby minimizing accidents and enhancing labor productivity [61, 38] emphasized that a superior work environment empowers employees to work harder, more efficiently, and more effectively. Ambient temperature, lighting conditions, ventilation, air quality, and onsite facilities such as restrooms, food, and rest areas are all critical factors for CLP improvement [76]. In the face of unforeseen circumstances such as pandemics, disasters, or wars [112] construction managers must devise effective strategies to maintain environmental health and safety, ensuring the uninterrupted progression of onsite tasks [81].

Ineffective communication among stakeholders can trigger a cascade of productivity issues, resource shortages, and intractable conflicts; conversely, fostering effective stakeholder interactions is paramount to the successful completion of construction projects [104]. A strained relationship between workers and supervisors can lead to laborers working in isolation, diminishing their work motivation and performance levels. Therefore, cultivating a positive work environment can foster a stronger rapport between workers and their managers [67]. Construction work is physically and mentally demanding; operating in adverse conditions, both physical and mental, will only yield negative outcomes. Consequently, leaders and managers must strive to create a positive work environment and establish open communication channels to motivate their workers, enhance work effectiveness, and ultimately, improve productivity [26, 94].

Adopting technological advancements in the construction industry

The rapid advancement of technology has significantly impacted CLP in recent years [120]. The introduction of sophisticated tools, machinery, and automated information systems has enhanced productivity while altering skill requirements for construction workers [42]. Embracing technological advancements and innovation is crucial for organizations and industries to achieve improved productivity, cost-effectiveness, and, most importantly, sustainable growth [13]. Information technology, in particular, holds the potential to revolutionize management information systems, enabling managers to access accurate and timely data that facilitates faster, more informed decisions on construction sites [77]. The increasing adoption of construction technologies, such as artificial intelligence, robotics, drones, automation, virtual reality, building information modeling (BIM), Internet of Things (IoT), and scan to BIM, further reinforces the transformative power of technology in the construction industry [12, 41, 85, 89, 107, 124]. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the adoption and implementation of technologies in the construction industry have led to substantial improvements in work performance, labor productivity, and construction time and cost savings [6, 114, 126]. For instance, a study by [124] revealed that BIM not only facilitated clash detection but also contributed to the development of value-adding workflows through enhanced teamwork and communication, ultimately boosting labor productivity on construction projects. Additionally, BIM adoption has been shown to significantly enhance construction project performance by reducing up to 40% of unbudgeted changes, improving cost estimation accuracy by up to 3%, reducing cost estimation time by up to 80%, saving up to 10% of contract value through clash detection, and reducing project time by up to 7% [28]. Furthermore, the implementation of IoT in the construction industry is expected to enhance performance in the areas of worker safety, efficiency, and productivity, as well as facilitate effective communication and enable the storage of valuable data and information for companies and organizations [85].

4 Conclusions

A scientometric analysis of 710 construction journal articles published in the twenty-first century reveals global research trends in construction productivity. Dominated by the USA, Canada, and Australia, the field favors journals like Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Automation in Construction, and Construction Management & Economics. Keyword analysis found “productivity,” “construction industry,” and “project management” most prevalent. Notably, research relies on empirical methods like questionnaires and uses measures like relative importance index, factor analysis, and regression analysis. Interestingly, smart construction and sustainable cities appear as emerging concepts for sustainable productivity. Additionally, prior studies advocate for workforce upskilling, enhancing motivation, work environment improvements, strengthening site management and embracing technological advancements to boost CLP.

Knowledge gaps identified in current construction productivity research present exciting opportunities for future study. Firstly, upskilling construction workers: Develop a tailored learning curve framework for both on-site and off-site workers, investigating (1) optimal framework design, (2) effective skills, scenarios, and learning rates, (3) key influencing factors, and (4) accurate productivity impact evaluation. Secondly, technology’s impact: Prioritize research on advanced technologies, construction site amenities, project culture, sustainability initiatives, digital adaptability, and workforce welfare initiatives, all influencing productivity. Quantify potential benefits (time, cost, sustainability) of integrating emerging technologies for wider adoption. Finally, smart cities, leveraging data, AI, and smart technologies, create opportunities to improve labor productivity through optimized workforce allocation, enhanced skills, collaboration, and well-being-focused workspaces. This will contribute to a more sustainable and inclusive urban future.

A primary limitation of this study lies in its reliance on publications on construction productivity from a select group of academic journals. Given the vast body of research on construction productivity, this restriction prevented the comprehensive examination of all relevant literature. While extensive efforts were devoted to analyzing the findings of previous studies, it is acknowledged that this review does not encompass all aspects of the topic. For instance, this review does not delve into prior studies that explore construction productivity from diverse perspectives, such as stakeholder perceptions, construction productivity models, and project scales, which were not addressed within the scope of this study sector.