Status and prospects of surface texturing: design, manufacturing and applications

Abstract

In recent years, the requirements for high-quality development in the manufacturing industry and extreme application conditions have increasingly demanded higher equipment performance. The surface and interface condition of components is directly related to the stability, reliability and service life of equipment. The development of high-performance or multi-performance surface texturing is of great significance for the effective improvement of mechanical properties, optical properties, catalytic properties and biological properties of surfaces. This paper summarizes the application of textured surfaces in improving the physical, chemical and biological properties of surfaces; outlines the types of texturing patterns and the design methods; analyzes the main technical methods and their characteristics for the preparation of surface textures in additive manufacturing, subtractive manufacturing and equal material manufacturing; and makes outlooks on texturing surfaces from the aspects of performance enhancement, pattern design and manufacturing technology in combination with the development trend of textured surfaces’ intelligence and digitization.

1 Introduction

With the fierce competition in the global manufacturing industry and humanity’s exploration of uncharted areas such as deep sea, deep space, deep earth, etc., higher requirements have been put forward for the service performance of mechanical equipment under extreme working conditions (e.g., high temperature, high pressure.). The surface/interface of components is the medium for transferring motion and energy, which is directly related to the stability, reliability and service life of different kinds of high-end equipment. Surface engineering is undoubtedly an effective way to tackle the challenge of surface/interface problems. Surface engineering is a systematic engineering to change the morphology, chemical composition, organizational structure and stress condition of solid metallic surfaces or non-metallic surfaces through surface coating, surface modification, or composite treatment of multiple surface technologies to obtain surfaces with desired properties [1].

Surface texturing refers to the microfabrication technology through microfabrication in the material surface processing with a specific geometry, size and arrangement of micro/nano structures, the formation of a textured surface, thus improving the surface properties of the material surface modification technology. Compared to smooth surfaces, surface texturing provides a solution for high-performance and multi-performance surfaces by changing the surface morphology and organizational structure so that parts reflect better performance in actual working conditions. Surface texturing plays a pivotal and irreplaceable role in major national projects and critical areas as it serves as a significant approach to enhancing surface properties [2].

The surface texturing technique has attracted the attention of many scholars since it was proposed in the 1960s. Figure 1 shows that research scholars have extensively studied surface texturing. Based on the Web of Science literature search to organize the literature in this field from 1930 to June 2023, the total number of scholarly outputs related to surface texturing exceeds 120,000 articles. At present, surface texturing has been widely used in cutting tools [3], gears [4], bearings [5], optical components [6], new energy panels [7] and medical implants [8]. By implementing micro and nano-scale structures on the surfaces of processed components, surface texturing aims to enhance their wear resistance [9], lubrication [10], hydrophilic and hydrophobic [11], adhesion and detachment [12], light transmission [13], chemical reaction rate [7], biocompatibility [14], bio-osteogenic [15], bio-absorbability [16]. Consequently, surface texturing can improve equipment performance, extend service life, and prevent damage in complex environments.

Fig. 1

Technological development of surface texturing. This graph illustrates the developmental trajectory and significant milestones of Surface Texturing from the 1960s to the present. Furthermore, the figure provides a summary of the quantity of academic accomplishments in surface texturing across high-level journals with high citations, as well as in the fields of engineering, materials science, physics, and other related research disciplines

However, there is a lack of literature review related to surface texturing in application, pattern design and manufacturing. This paper focuses on the application of texturing surfaces in the engineering field, reviews the current research status at home and abroad in terms of the properties and applications, pattern design and fabrication technology, discusses the scientific, technological and engineering issues involved in the process of improving surface properties, and predicts its future development trend. Through a comprehensive review of academic achievements in the domains of physical, chemical, and biological properties of surface texturing, as well as an investigation into the interplay between surface properties and application domains, pattern design, and fabrication technologies, the purpose of this study is to find or propose the synergistic relationship between geometry and performance in the application field and then to promote theoretical innovation, technological breakthroughs and transformation of research findings in the related fields.

2 Texturized surface properties and applications

In recent years, the development and application of surface texturing in various fields have led to unique properties that exhibit diverse characteristics. As shown in Fig. 2, surface texturing has emerged as a viable solution to address the physical, chemical and biological challenges encountered in surfaces and interfaces. As the application areas expand and in-depth investigations into multi-performance surfaces progress, surface texturing is poised to become an integral component of surface modification. This section categorizes the texture properties into physical, chemical and biological.

Fig. 2

Applications and properties of surface textures. This figure illustrates the characteristics of surface textures and their wide-ranging applications in the fields of physics, chemistry, and biology

2.1 Physical properties

The improvement of physical properties of texturing surfaces is commonly seen in practical engineering. Components under different operating conditions raise different requirements on their surface properties. In this section, the mechanical properties, thermal properties, optical properties, electrical properties, magnetic properties and noise and vibration control of textured surfaces are introduced and summarized.

2.1.1 Mechanical properties

As surfaces serve as mediums for transferring motion and energy, the regulation and enhancement of their mechanical properties play a pivotal role in facilitating efficient energy transfer. The relative motion between the moving parts can lead to the peeling off of the surface/interface materials, and the abrasive particles between the moving parts can also lead to further wear of the contact surfaces, which affects the motion characteristics, transfer efficiency and service life. Researchers have conducted a series of theoretical and experimental studies on the mechanical properties of textured surfaces, such as wear resistance and drag reduction, load-bearing lubrication and hydrophobicity.

The relative motion between the piston and cylinder liner in an internal combustion engine is an essential link in fuel energy conversion. Deng et al. [17] carried out piston-cylinder liner friction experiments and revealed the influence of friction coefficient and friction force on friction coefficient with rotation period and surface texture under lubrication conditions by machining microstructures on the surfaces of aluminum alloy piston and cast iron cylinder liner. Ryk et al. [18] prepared micro-nanostructures on the surface of cast iron bushings and chrome-plated piston rings and demonstrated that surface texturing improves friction performance in a specific speed range by carrying out reciprocating friction experiments and comparing them with non-textured parts. Hua et al. [19] machined a textured surface on the inner surface of the cylinder liner and carried out engine test-bed tests, which showed that the surface texturing could enhance the lubrication between the cylinder and piston liner, which in turn reduced the engine fuel consumption. Yin et al. [9] established a lubrication model of cylinder liner-cylinder sliding vice, prepared the texturing on the surface of the piston cylinder made of wear-resistant alloy cast iron, and carried out the engine bench test. Their experiments have demonstrated that surface texturing could enhance the lubricant’s dynamic pressure characteristics and improve the oil film’s carrying capacity. The friction loss and poor lubrication of the reciprocating piston-cylinder liner moving pair directly lead to low transmission efficiency and poor fuel economy. Reducing the friction between the piston-cylinder liner moving parts and preventing the destruction of the lubricant film will become a meaningful way to achieve the long-term stable operation of the internal combustion engine and improve energy efficiency.

An optimal tool service environment is vital in enhancing cutting performance, prolonging tool lifespan and improving machining efficiency. As shown in Fig. 3a and b. Kawasegi et al. [3] conducted experiments on tool turning of aluminum alloy, wherein they machined micro/nano structures on both the front and back face of the cutting tool. The findings revealed that the textured surface notably reduced cutting force during machining. As shown in Fig. 3c. Enomoto et al. [20] machined micron-scale grooves on the tool surface and carried out tool-cutting experiments on aluminium alloy composites and demonstrated that coated tools with surface texturing improved the anti-adhesion and lubrication properties of the tools during dry cutting or near-dry cutting conditions. Arulkirubakaran et al. [21] machined micro-nanostructures on the tool surface and explored the effect of different textures on cutting forces, friction coefficients and chip morphology by turning experiments. Figure 3d-g shows optical images after machining with different texturing tools. Ling et al. [22] textured the tool’s surface and tested the cutting performance with untextured, 10% textured, and 20% textured holes. The experimental results demonstrated that the textured surface effectively mitigated workpiece and chip adhesion to the tool while enhancing the lubrication and heat dissipation properties. Neves et al. [12] conducted the machining of microstructures on the tool surface and applied lubricating coatings. They performed wear performance evaluation experiments and drilling experiments to assess the effects. The findings demonstrated that the surface texture played a crucial role in preventing adhesion at the cutting interface of the drill bit and facilitating shear stress relaxation. Friction, wear and chip adhesion during the cutting process seriously affect the service environment of the tool. Significant enhancements in tool performance can be attained through the reduction of wear and tear, enhancement of wear resistance, and prevention of adhesion. These improvements result in reduced production costs and enhanced machining quality.

Fig. 3

Application and performance enhancement of texturing surfaces in cutting tools. SEM image of the tool surface after cutting the tool at 600 m/min a non-texturing and b texturing surface [3]. c Intersecting grooves on the tool surface [20]. Optical images of d non-textured, e transverse textured 1, f transverse textured 2, and g intersecting textures on the tool surface [22]

The lubrication and drag reduction performance of bearings and gears in power transmission systems effectively prevent direct contact between parts, reducing resistance during operation and enhancing the load-bearing capacity of these components. Consequently, this improvement significantly improves the working conditions of the system. Gupta et al. [4] conducted a study where ellipsoidal pits were prepared on the tooth face and flanks of gears, followed by the addition of molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂) lubricant into the pits. Figure 4a and b illustrate the microscopic morphology of the non-textured and textured structures after bearing. The results demonstrated that the textured surface on the tooth flanks effectively reduced the contact resistance between the gears during meshing. Furthermore, the textured surface also reduces temperature rise and minimizes damage to the tooth surface. In high-speed, heavy-load and high-pressure operating conditions, the formation of lubricant films and the drag-reduction capabilities of the surface exhibit poor performance. These challenges have become essential factors affecting the stability and reliability of mechanical equipment under extreme working conditions, which cannot be overlooked.

Fig. 4

Mechanical properties enhancement of texturing surfaces and application. SEM images of tooth root surfaces after experiments on a non-texturing and b textured gears [4]. c Optical image of droplet array arrangement and d directional water transport mechanism [23]

Droplet manipulation on textured surfaces is used in various applications in optical components, high-speed vehicles and conveyor lines. As shown in Fig. 4c and d. Yin et al. [23] prepared a series of inhomogeneous and patternable wettable surfaces on polyimide (PI) surfaces to modulate the contact angle from superhydrophilic (~3.6°) to superhydrophobic (~151.6°), which resulted in a continuous and controllable wettability of the functional surfaces. Bian et al. [24] processed microarrays on the surface of K9 glass substrate with a contact angle of 160.0° and a sliding angle of 1.5° on textured surfaces, which exhibit superhydrophobic properties and enhance the optical performance of the optical lenses underwater as well as their oil-phobicity. Yang et al. [11] processed micro/nano structures on the surface of an underwater pipeline and determined the contact angle in different fluid media. The prepared texturing surfaces showed superhydrophobicity in air and superhydrophobicity in water, and the contact angle of bubbles in water reached 159 ± 2.5°. The very low bubble adhesion on the pipe surface and the small bubble rolling angle are favorable for avoiding the adhesion of underwater bubbles in the pipe and prolonging the service life. Zhao et al. [25] prepared cylindrical microtextured structures with different size parameters on the surface of silicone rubber and confirmed that the textured surface could effectively prolong the freezing time of water droplets on the surface of the specimen, which revealed the law of the textured size parameters on the de-icing performance of silicone rubber surfaces. The texturing surface shows a lower droplet binding force, which improves the de-icing effect of the functional surface. Liang et al. [26] Based on the anti-fog mechanism of mammalian cornea, a porous structure was constructed on the surface of silica glass, which was modified by fluorosilane and lubricant injection to design and prepare an anti-fog sliding surface. The texturing of the surface of the optical element can improve the anti-fog performance, light transmission and self-healing ability. Icing on the surface of high-speed aircraft, corrosion of submarine pipelines and droplet adhesion of optical lenses in special fluids have become fatal factors affecting the normal operation of equipment, and the research and application of texturing surfaces in droplet manipulation will further promote the study of surface droplet regulation.

To summarize, the mechanical properties of component surfaces exhibit anisotropy under actual working conditions, particularly during the transfer of motion and energy in complex environments. Through extensive interdisciplinary interactions with other fields, particularly microstructures, it substantially impacts the precision, reliability and lifespan of crucial critical equipment.

2.1.2 Optical properties

Light trapping, light transmission, light polarization and structure coloring are essential factors limiting high-performance photovoltaic conversion, optical transmission efficiency and optical display. Modulating the surface microstructure of texturing optical elements holds significant importance in the realms of optics and photovoltaics as it serves to enhance the photovoltaic effect, imaging performance and transmission characteristics.

Light reflection loss and capture efficacy are important factors affecting the photovoltaic effect. Optical structures on the surface of semiconductor devices in photovoltaics minimize reflections and improve light reception and spatial resolution. Yang et al. [27] prepared sub-millimeter microlenses with adjustable numerical aperture on SiO2 substrates and revealed the effects of each process parameter on the lens morphology and imaging performance monitoring and focusing performance analysis. Chen et al. [28] processed cylindrical arrays with a width of 170nm, a depth of 345nm, and an aspect ratio of 2.03 on a sapphire surface, which improved the reflectivity from 6 to 2%, and the reflectivity at 70° incidence angle from 39 to 11%. As shown in Fig. 5a. Xu et al. [6] optimized the geometrical parameters of the microstructure by combining a triangular cone textured film onto the smooth surface of a crystalline silicon cell and achieved a large-area preparation of a textured surface, where the reflection loss of light was reduced from 22.3 to 7.2%, and the photovoltaic conversion efficiency was increased from 18.30 to 20.47%. Columnar arrays with high specific surface area prepared by Faingold [29] enhanced broadband absorption by excitation of optical properties in the underlying substrate, exhibiting lower complex currents, higher open-circuit voltages and higher photovoltaic efficiencies. Efficiency is a major goal in photovoltaics, especially when it comes to capturing and converting light energy. As the sun moves throughout the day, optical devices must be able to capture light from different angles and intensities. This requires a high level of precision and adaptability.

Fig. 5

Performance improvement and application of surface texturing in optics. a Triangular cone film for solar cells [6]. Sub-wavelength nanostructures have b transmission and c reflection spectra at 400-1200 nm [30]. d Infrared thermograms of untreated and treated porous glass in hand [13]. e Structural coloring of acrylic polymer surfaces [31]

Energy is usually lost as it passes through the surface of an object. Micro-nanostructures on the device surface of infrared and optical sensors can ease the loss during energy transmission. Wang et al. [30] explored potential mechanisms for transmittance enhancement and geometric design of artificial structures. Bionic reflectance-reducing nanostructures were prepared on optical glass by optimizing process parameters and transmission experiments were carried out. As shown in Fig. 5b and c. The results show that the texturized surface can significantly enhance the transmittance of optical devices. Wu et al. [13] used femtosecond laser technology to process nanoscale cavities in porous glass and conduct infrared thermometry experiments. The texturing surface improves the transmittance of the lens, reduces the influence of heat in the environment on infrared thermography, and enhances the accuracy of infrared temperature measurement. The infrared imaging maps of textured and untextured structures are shown in Fig. 5d. Establishing an in-depth study of energy loss mechanisms and functional surface modulation will ensure the efficiency of energy transfer and utilization. This will improve the energy utilization efficiency and measurement accuracy of the device.

Structural coloring is the use of micro and nanostructures on the surface of a material to manipulate the optical interference, optical diffraction, and reflection spectra of the surface. It is widely used in camouflage, communication and high-definition displays. As shown in Fig. 5e. Wang et al. [31] successfully prepared high spatial frequency grating-type microstructures on silicon surfaces with spacings ranging from 0.75 to 4μm for the structural coloring of surfaces. Yang et al. [32] and Wang et al. [33] further prepared structural colored reliefs using modulated elliptical vibrational textures by modulating the grating spacings and trajectories with different amplitudes, which altered the diffractive structural coloring of the sample surfaces. Structural coloring can exhibit vibrant colors for long periods, but the surface color changes as the viewing angle shifts and is not adaptive to natural ambient light. This hinders the application and development of texturing in structural coloring.

In total, Establishing the relationship between optical elements and performance enhancement and revealing the laws of optical performance and microstructure are the basis for modulating the performance of light trapping, light transmission and structure coloring. This makes the elements better adapted to complex natural environments.

2.1.3 Thermal, magnetic and electrical properties

In addition to mechanical and optical properties, the performance of the surface of components should also fulfill the requirements for thermal, electrical and magnetic properties. This is crucial for ensuring the stability, high resolution and reliability of power devices, electronic components and communication equipment.

Heat control becomes a decisive factor affecting the lifetime of power devices. Surface heat dissipation is mainly realized by lowering the ambient temperature and increasing the heat flux. Gregorčič et al. [34] prepared microcavities with diameters (0.2-10μm) on the surface of 316 SUS, and the results of heat transfer are shown in Fig. 6a and b. The results indicate that the textured surface significantly enhanced the heat exchange between the environment and the surface by changing the specific surface area of the heat transfer surface, which resulted in effective cooling and heat transfer from the textured surface. By establishing the mechanism of surface microstructure and heat transport, the problem of heat transport on the surface of microelectronic devices and nuclear-boiling devices will be effectively solved.

Fig. 6

Improved thermal, electrical and magnetic properties of textured surfaces. Temperature distribution of a untextured and b textured surfaces at 50 kW/m² and 200 kW/m² [34]. c Electromagnetic shielding mechanism of ME21/Mg laminates [35]. Temperature sensing performance curves with d platinum nanoparticles coating and e Long period fiber gratings coating [36]

With the proliferation of electronic communication equipment, mobile terminals and signal base stations, the demand for signal integrity and prevention of external electromagnetic interference for equipment related to the communication field is gradually increasing. Song et al. [37] explored the effect of texturing on the electromagnetic shielding properties of magnesium alloy AZ31 by rolling microstructures at different scales on the surface of the samples and testing the electromagnetic shielding effect in the test frequency range of 30-1500MHz. Compared with non-texturing, the electromagnetic shielding effect at 1500 MHz increased by 16 dB. Zhang et al. [35] and Xing et al. [38] prepared magnesium-based multilayer interfacial composites, where the precipitated secondary phases and the introduced interfaces attenuated the electromagnetic waves after many reflections, thus exhibiting high electromagnetic shielding performance. The electromagnetic shielding mechanism is shown in Fig. 6c. Liu et al. [39] reduced the anisotropy index from 1.02 to 0.43 by adding metallic cerium Ce to a magnesium alloy, thereby affecting the random orientation of the crystalline grains on the functional surface. The electromagnetic shielding effect at 1200MHz was 71dB. It is important to study the interaction between the micro-nano structure and material of the surface and the electromagnetic field, and then realize the absorption, enhancement and regulation of electromagnetic waves on the surface, which is vital for improving the stability and reliability of the communication equipment.

Communication technology requires greater sensitivity, stability, and reliability in extreme environments. The development of surface texturing will provide solutions to the challenges posed by complex environments to communication technology. Dong et al. [36] prepared functional surfaces on the surface of high-temperature sensors to provide a low attenuation rate of reflected intensity, small wavelength hysteresis effect and high stability. The experimental results show the sensitivity of the temperature sensor coated with Pt nanoparticles, as shown in Fig. 6d and e. Ge et al. [40] deposited AlN thin film on the sapphire substrate and the piezoelectric coefficient of the surface could reach 9.53pm/V with a RMS of 2.012nm at a sputtering time of 90min, which ultimately resulted in better surface electrical properties. Improving the sensitivity, resolution, stability, and reliability of electronic components will have a significant impact on their development and application in fields such as healthcare and polar exploration.

2.1.4 Noise and vibration control

Mechanical noise due to mechanical vibrations is transmitted to the environment in the form of sound waves. Surface texturing allows for the modulation of noise and vibrations, and it has been widely adopted in bearings and cutting tools. Chen et al. [41] prepared surface micro/nano structures on the bearing surface, carried out experiments, and verified the vibration-damping performance of the bearings under the effect of texturing by axial trajectory and amplitude monitoring. Li et al. [42] investigated the impact of 40Cr surface microstructure on friction noise, revealing the relationship between microstructural morphology parameters and friction noise. John et al. [43] ablated pits of 100μm and 150μm spacing on the surface of EN31 steel and investigated the relationship between friction noise and pit arrangement, while the optimum average friction noise and friction coefficient were obtained using Taguchi’s experimental method; Liu et al. [44] prepared microstructures on stainless steel surfaces. Compared to the smooth surface, the circular crater surface with a diameter of 150µm and a texture area density of 15% showed a 27% reduction in friction coefficient, 95% reduction in friction vibration, and 66% reduction in friction noise. Tong et al. [45] prepared microstructures on the surface of YG8 cemented carbide using laser machining technology to reduce motion noise and proposed to determine better process parameters and geometric parameters of the microstructures through experimental studies. The presence of mechanical noise affects the stability and reliability of equipment. It is possible to control noise and reduce energy loss during transmission by linking materials, contact forms, texturing, vibration, and sound absorption.

Surface texturing has significantly improved the physical properties in various fields such as mechanics, thermodynamics, optics, electronics, magnetism, vibrations and noise control. It finds widespread application in foundational components, optical elements and cutting tools. Surface texturing has improved functional surface efficiency and reduced losses due to requirements for functional surface performance.

2.2 Chemical properties

Surface texturing belongs to the category of surface modification and can also be used for performance enhancement in the discipline of surface chemistry. Texturing surfaces can enhance surface catalytic, adsorption, crystallization and corrosion resistance properties, which can be applied to catalyst preparation and fuel cells.

Catalysis in fuel cells is an integral part of cell performance. As shown in Fig. 7a and b. Wei et al. [46] prepared a textured membrane on the surface of a fuel cell and set a planar membrane as a control group, by testing the cell performance of the two different membranes, the surface area of the textured membrane was 1.27 times more than that of the planar membrane and the maximum power of the cell was 1.17 times more than that of the planar membrane cell. As shown in Fig. 7c and d. Baik et al. [7] prepared porous metal bipolar plates using the microfabrication technique to reduce the ohmic resistance while maximizing the oxygen supply. The current density of the textured metal bipolar plate increased by 13.96% at 0.6V. Govindarajan et al. [47] used Ti as an anode in microbial fuel cells and prepared microstructures on the surface using a laser processing technique, the functional surface exhibited higher power density as compared to the untextured surface. The catalytic processes located on the surface of the fuel cell enhance chemical reactions by facilitating increased oxygen supply and expanding the specific surface area. As a result, the overall performance of the cell is improved.

The corrosion resistance of a material is directly related to the surface electrode potential. Texturing surfaces can be used to modulate the corrosion resistance of surfaces. Ahuir-Torres et al. [49] machined microstructures on the surface of aluminium alloys and tested the extreme curves of the functional surfaces, which showed that the aluminium alloys exhibited higher corrosion resistance during long-term use. As shown in Fig. 7e. Yang et al. [48] tested the potentiodynamic polarization curves of ns and ns-fs laser-treated Al plate surfaces. The increase in E_corr and the decrease in I_corr on the surface of the texturing samples indicate that the corrosion resistance of the material has been improved, effectively preventing the substrate from being corroded by the electrolyte. By analyzing the chemical reactions involved in the actual working conditions of the parts, the correspondence between the microstructure and the surface corrosion potential will be established to regulate the corrosion resistance of the surface better.

Fig. 7

Improved chemical properties and application of textured surfaces. Schematic redox on three-phase boundaries of a planar and b textured film [46]. c Metal electrode plates and d conventional metal plates in a fuel cell [7]. e Polarization curves of 1061 Al plates before and after texturing [48]

In particular, textured surfaces can regulate processes such as catalysis, adsorption, crystallization and corrosion resistance in surface chemistry. The joint effects of textured surfaces and surface chemistry will promote the development and industrial application of surface texturing. This characteristic propels their further advancement in applications related to surface protection and fuel cells.

2.3 Biological properties

Commonly used medical devices are mainly categorized into operating devices, physiological performance testing devices and implants. The application of micro-texturing in operating instruments is primarily related to the properties of adhesion, de-adhesion and wet friction of the instruments, which are widely used in high-temperature electrosurgical knives and surgical grippers. Also, Textured surfaces demonstrate notable performance improvements in the biomedical field, particularly in biocompatibility, bio-durability and bio-osteogenicity. Enhanced implant performance can alleviate patient discomfort during medical procedures and expedite recovery.

During minimally invasive surgical procedures, manipulative instruments with texturing surfaces can improve the adhesion and detachment properties of the surfaces. As shown in Fig. 8a-f, Han et al. [50] carried out tissue electrode cutting experiments using electrodes and coupled bionic electrodes, respectively. The coupled bionic electrode has less tissue adhesion than the electrode substrate without texture. As shown in Fig. 8g, Chen et al. [51] processed regular rows of microscale quadrilateral columns on the surface of surgical gripping instruments, thereby enhancing the wet attachment properties of the contact surfaces and thus reducing soft tissue damage by the gripping instruments during surgery. Liu et al. [52] designed and prepared a bionic strong wet friction surface on wearable sensing surfaces, and the wet anti-slip effect of the surface can be improved by about 5 times. Zhang et al. [53] prepared microstructures with different parameters on the surface of the high-temperature electric knife respectively, and the optical picture comparison before and after cutting is shown in Fig. 8h-j. Modulating the adhesion and detachment properties of operating instrument surfaces to physiological tissues will facilitate the development and application of surface texturing.

Fig. 8

Performance improvement and application in operating instruments. Optical images of a non-textured and c textured electrodes before cutting the tissue. Optical image of b untextured and d textured electrodes after cutting tissue. Bionic electrode e Curve of cutting time versus electrode adhesion f Curve of cutting depth versus electrode adhesion [50]. g Microscopic SEM image of surgical gripper [51]. Optical images of the scalpel surface of the soft tissue of the h untreated, i chemically etched, and j texturized electrodes before cutting (upper) and after cutting (lower) [53]

Implants, as integral components of the human physiological structure, play a crucial role in substituting for human joints, organs and blood vessels. Biocompatibility refers to the ability of an implant to synergize with tissues, organs and cells in an organism. It will directly determine the viability of the implanted organism. Li et al. [14] prepared microstructures on the surface of Ti-6Al-4V implants to improve cell adhesion, alignment and proliferation. As shown in Fig. 9a. Wang et al. [15] processed the surface of rabbit humerus implants made of titanium alloy to create a textured surface. By carrying out in vitro experiments, it was verified that the texturing surface could improve the adhesion and proliferation properties of stem cells. Yu et al. [16] addressed the cell proliferation and vascularization of medical implants using surface texturing. The cellular uptake of the implant was demonstrated by fluorescence analysis and Doppler imaging analysis. In the process of engineering applications, there are cells that are difficult to survive. Physiological rejection and other issues directly affect the performance of the implant.

The interior of living organisms is a relatively complex environment with the presence of bacteria that etch implant parts. The stability of the implant will directly determine the service life of the implant. As shown in Fig. 9b. Moura et al. [54] improved the local insulating properties of the implant surface by machining micro-nanostructures on the surface of the implant oxide layer, thereby establishing intrinsic communication between the implant and the patient. Xu et al. [59] processed the layered structure of fish scales and shrimp bumps on the surface of titanium alloy by laser processing technology, which improved cell attachment and proliferation. The prepared micro/nano structures are also conducive to promoting the formation of apatite, which in turn lubricates the friction interface and effectively reduces friction and anti-wear in long-term corrosive solutions. Implants have a shorter lifespan and may lead to mild osteoporosis and more complications during usage. Surface texturing can improve the wear resistance and corrosion resistance of implants, which is important for the stability of implants such as brain-computer communication and organ chips.

Fig. 9

Surface texturing was used to enhance biological properties. a Histological staining maps of cytoskeleton and nuclei of implants with different texturing parameters after 7 days [15]. b Schematic representation of electronic circuit printed on Ti6Al4V substrate [54]. c Histological staining of rabbits implanted with CNC and LST implants after 6 weeks [55]. d Cross-sectional CT images of rabbit femurs with bone screws implanted after 12 weeks [56]. e Micro-CT reconstruction of implants with different processing parameters after weeks 2, 4, and 8 of the three-dimensional model [57]. f Comparison of albumin fluorescence images of polished and texturing regions [58]

Good biological osteogenicity enhances tissue growth and bone tissue integration of the implant into the organism. As shown in Fig. 9c. Hyzy et al. [55] implanted teeth with different roughness surfaces and measured the extraction force of the implants, revealing the law of roughness on the osteogenic properties of implants. As shown in Fig. 9d. Ren et al. [56] processed micro-nanostructures on the surface of titanium alloy implants to improve their bioactivity and osteogenic properties, and carried out in vitro experiments, contrast CT and histological analysis to verify the osteogenic properties of titanium alloy implants. As shown in Fig. 9e. Wang et al. [57] prepared the surface texturing and carried out in vitro experiments, and verified that the osteogenicity of the implant was improved in several ways, including tomographic analysis, histological analysis and extraction tests. As shown in Fig. 9f. Klos et al. [58] prepared surface micro-nanostructures in Ti-6Al-4V and demonstrated that the texturized surface improves the local hydrophobic properties of the surface, stem cell spreading properties, stem cell adhesion properties and protein adsorption further promoting osteogenic differentiation. The combination and synergy between the implant and the tissues in the body is the basis for the proper functioning of the implant, and the establishment of mutual mechanisms between the surface of the mechanical parts and the organism will better serve modern medicine.

The integration of surface texturing and biological properties will promote the synergistic development of surface modification technology in biomedical and health fields. In particular, customization services for implants in complex environments, the ability to adapt to large heterogeneous surfaces, a high degree of performance integration, and the need for improved specificity biology have become significant constraints to the development of implants.

To sum up, surface texturing has considerably improved physical, chemical and biological surface properties. It has found extensive applications across various domains, including energy conservation, information gathering, medical substitution and surface protection. As shown in Table 1. Furthermore, given the complexity of actual working conditions and the requirements for high reliability, superior performance and extended service life of equipment, textured surfaces have emerged as one of the most crucial solutions for addressing functional surface challenges. The regulation and control of surface properties necessitate the establishment of an inherent correlation between micro/nano structures and properties. The growing need for high-performance and multifunctional surfaces will propel the expansion of surface texturing into broader and more profound research domains, leading to the industrialization of functional surfaces.

Table 1 Application and performance enhancement of textured surfaces

3 Texturing pattern design

The microstructure of surface texturing and the arrangement of patterns are critical factors affecting the surface properties of materials. The pattern design under different performance requirements varies in shape, scale and arrangement. The rational design of surface microstructure can enhance the surface performance and even facilitate the emergence of novel functionalities. To achieve textured patterns, both theoretical and biomimetic methods are employed in the design process. In addition, modern ways such as simulation and optimization design methods are discussed in this section.

3.1 Theoretical design method

The theoretical design method establishes a correlation between performance requirements and geometric parameters, including shape, scale, spacing and arrangement of the texturing pattern. It involves conducting a systematic exploration of dimensional parameters to optimize the design. This method is oriented towards meeting the surface performance requirements within actual working conditions. It takes into account the specific operating conditions of mechanical products and comprehensively designs the texturing pattern to align with the performance requirements. Pattern design methods can be categorized into the following types:

3.1.1 Simple patterns design

The simple pattern design refers to a regular arrangement of discrete or continuous, simple-shaped micro and nanostructures, such as the matrix arrangement of pits and linear array of grooves. Simple patterning is a direct method to improve the surface properties of materials by designing the cross-sectional morphology of the micro- and nanostructures and the regular arrangement of the pattern’s dimensional parameters. As shown in Fig. 10a. Moura C [54] implemented a design of grooves on the surface of a titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) with varying distances ranging from 10-50μm. John et al. [43] designed a micrometer-scale rectangular arrangement of pits on the surface of EN31 steel to reveal the relationship between friction noise and sliding frequency. The values of frequency and pit spacing were designed for lower noise. Chu et al. [60] designed and prepared grooves with a high aspect ratio. The microstructure has a diameter of 9.06μm, a height of 35.19μm, and an aspect ratio of 3.88. Luo et al. [61] devised a square texture pattern, as illustrated in Fig. 10b, characterized by a width of 0.8mm and a depth of 2mm. Fang et al. [62] designed a uniform porous structure of 4μm in Ni-Ti alloy and injected the lubricant into the surface microstructure to form a smooth liquid-injected porous surface, which demonstrated better lubrication performance. Figure 10c shows the linear radial array designed by Zhang et al. [10] on the surface of Babbitt alloy. The pits in this arrangement have a diameter of 10μm, allowing for an exploration of the relationship between pit depth, texturing area percentage and friction coefficient. Simple patterning is the most convenient approach to enhance surface performance. However, the challenges lie in achieving performance coupling and meeting the anisotropic performance requirements of functional surfaces during the simple patterning process. Overcoming these hurdles is of utmost importance.

Fig. 10

Design and arrangement of simple pattern designs. a Diagram of grooves with varying spacing [54]. b Matrix arrangement of square pits [61]. c Pits in a linear radial array on Babbitt alloy [10]

3.1.2 Pattern combination design

Pattern combination design is a method employed to create a diverse arrangement of simple patterns and combine different surface patterns to address the complex surface properties. The design involves various arrangements such as triangular and staggered arrangements, as well as the combination of patterns such as triangular columns, hexagonal columns and elliptical pits. Compared to the simple pattern design, pattern combination design introduces a more intricate arrangement and pattern combination. The pattern layout evolves from regular layouts to interlaced and heterogeneous layouts, while the pattern arrangement progresses from single patterns to combinations of multiple patterns. Chen et al. [51] designed arrays of quadrilateral, triangular, rhombic and hexagonal columns on the surface of a surgical grasper to enhance the wet friction performance of the device surface. As shown in Fig. 11a, Ling et al. [22] designed a rectangular groove texture with triangular distribution of edges on the front face of the tool. Wang et al. [63] designed microstructures with hexagonal arrangement and parabolic morphology in cross-section in sulfur glasses to solve the problems of low aberration imaging and large field of view in infrared optics devices. As depicted in Fig. 11b, Hamidnia et al. [64] designed arrays of silicon and copper micro-columns on the surface of a heat pipe, featuring circular, square and 90° rotated square patterns. Tu et al. [65] designed and prepared hexagonally aligned micropillars in the center of a 4-inch sapphire wafer to enhance the optical performance of the sapphire wafer. Wu et al. [66] designed a texturing pattern with staggered rows and crescent-shaped projections modeled after the drag-reducing surface of fish. The mechanism of drag reduction on functional surfaces is investigated by numerical analysis and experimental methods. Bai et al. [67] designed elliptical pits on the surface of sealing components and revealed the law of geometric parameters and performance enhancement. Li et al. [68] designed and prepared the structure on the surface of shark skin. As shown in Fig. 11c, Zheng et al. [69] designed elliptical pits for deflection angle, horizontal distance and numerical distance and established a correlation between geometric parameters and performance. Pattern combination design involves more geometric parameters than simple patterns, making the process more difficult. Accurate mathematical models are beneficial to pattern design.

Fig. 11

Design and layout of combined patterns. a Rectangular grooves with staggered rows on the front face of the tool [22]. b One micro heat pipe with micro pillars and zig-zag pattern [63]. c Microstructural and geometrical parameters of the elliptical shape of the surface [69]

3.1.3 Composite patterns design

The composite design of patterns breaks the regular structure and interlaced arrangement. It includes gradient patterns, irregular structures, and cross-scale design. Pattern microstructure and layout present diverse characteristics. Liu et al. [70] designed semicircular grooves on the disk surface with inclination angles of 40°, 45° and 70° as shown in Fig. 12a. The coefficient of friction between the disk surface and the surface of the contacting object can be reduced by adding lubricating fluid to the grooves. As shown in Fig. 12b, Liu et al. [71] and Mekhiel et al. [72] implemented a gradual transition in pattern scale, progressing from “micrometer and nanolaminar structures” to “submicrometer structures”. As shown in Fig. 12c, Han et al. [73] designed differently shaped, non-uniformly distributed pits on the surface of a ball end milling cutter to improve the service of the tool during machining. As shown in Fig. 12d, Xu et al. [6] designed hexagonal rows of, inverted tetrahedral functional patterns on the surface of a cell. As shown in Fig. 12e, Kim et al. [74] designed both micro-scale and nanoscale functional patterns on the AISI4140 surface to improve the hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties of the surface. Complex working environments and the needs for performance integration of functional surfaces are considered to cause the diversification of textured patterns. Utilizing cross-scale, gradient-distributed and heterogeneous patterns is anticipated to be a promising approach for enhancing the performance of anisotropic features.

Fig. 12

Pattern design for cross-scale, gradient and shaped structures. a Bionic scale texture arranged on the disk [70]. b Functional pattern of gradient depth [72]. c Schematic of different shaped, non-uniformly distributed micro-textures on the surface of a ball end mill [73]. d Triangular pyramidal texture for improved light reflection on the cell surface [6]. e Functional patterns across micro- and nanoscale [74]

The performance requirements of functional surfaces vary under different operating conditions, and achieving optimal surface performance under complex conditions necessitates a more rigorous texturing pattern design. Although single pattern design and pattern combination design can improve the performance of surfaces, composite pattern design has significant advantages in performance enhancement. Investigating the intrinsic mechanism between properties and patterns will further modulate the implementation of surfaces texturing.

3.2 Biomimetic design method

Different from the theoretical design method, the biomimetic design method is inspired by the biological surfaces in nature, the biological system in the cruel biological competition evolved or surface out of the excellent performance. The corresponding of micro/nano structures and the external environment of biological creatures have brought engineers creative ideas to design surface patterns. The biological surface of the microstructure has special physical, chemical and biological properties, that make creatures better adapt to the natural environment. In order to "Copy" the performance of the biological surface, one can process the surface with patterns copied or simplified from the biological surface. Biomimetic patterning, as an emerging texturing pattern design method, is an important solution to the problems of physical, energy and functional interfaces.

The main research ideas of the bionic design method are as follows, Firstly, through qualitative observation of the life habits and biological behaviors of the model organisms. Empirical speculation and judgment on the mechanism of excellent mechanical properties of the surface of the organism; Secondly, standardized testing and characterization of mechanical properties of isolated biological surfaces and structures to reveal the principles of mechanical properties of biological surfaces and structures from the perspective of multifactorial coupling of morphology, structure and materials; Thirdly, the principles of mechanical properties of biological surfaces and structures are analyzed with the help of advanced microscopic observation and characterization methods; Finally, the correlation between surface properties and patterning is established by combining the relationship between the surface of an organism and environment. The patterns of functional surfaces are designed and optimized with full consideration of existing manufacturing technologies.

Bionic design methods have been widely used in the design of textured patterns. As shown in Fig. 13a-c, Wang et al. [30] were inspired by cicadas to prepare graphical projections with a height of 250nm and a spacing of 300nm on the fused silica surface. As shown in Fig. 13d-f, Sun et al. [75]and Li et al. [76] were influenced by the superhydrophobicity and clean surface of the Lucilia sericata protruding in a humid environment, and designed a microlens with a diameter of 108μm and height of 15μm on the surface of a spherical lens. As shown in Fig. 13g-i and k, Zhang et al. [77, 78] were influenced by the strong adhesion properties exhibited by tree frogs on wet and slippery surfaces, and prepared patterns on the contact surface that resembled the micro- and nanoscale composite of tree frog toes. As shown in Fig. 13j and l, inspired by the microscopic cilia on the surface of the legs of Ligia exotica, Liu et al. [79] designed micron-scale gradient-varying arrangements of microscopic cilia exhibiting hydrophobic properties. In solving the problem of performance anisotropy, such as mechanical properties, hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties, the functional patterns designed using theoretical methods do not work exclusively in the service of performance enhancement. Regularly arranged, uniform microstructure of the micro-nano pattern is not the best solution to improve the surface performance. Gradient materials and gradient patterns will likely become a better solution to solve the functional surface.

Fig. 13

Functional surfaces and biomimetic pattern design in living organisms. a Air-dried cicada, b Scanning electron microscope image of cicada wings, and c Designed anti-reflective nanostructures [30]. d Optical image of Lucilia sericata in a fogging test chamber and e Low magnification SEM image of the fly’s compound eye [75]. f Microscopic raised structures on the surface of a spherical lens [76]. g Tree frogs climbing on wet, smooth glass, h Microcolumn SEM image of a tree frog toe and i SEM image of an artificially developed two-stage pillar texture [77]. j Ligia exotica leg with gradient-distributed micro-cilia [79]. k Schematic comparison of wet friction of a homogeneous texture with a non-homogeneous, gradient texture [78]. l Optical image of gradient-raised surface morphology [79]

3.3 Simulation and optimization design method

Simulation and optimization are used throughout the theoretical design of texturing patterns. The performance simulation of textured patterns and the optimization of pattern size and pattern arrangement are conducted by a wide range of researchers.

The development of simulation software and its integration with mathematical models has certainly simplified the pattern design application process. Chao et al. [80] modeled the effect of pattern orientation on the contact characteristics of ground parts, which was optimized to obtain the optimum texturing orientation angle for high wear-resistant surfaces. Li et al. [42] calculated the vibration level and noise energy of line contact friction noise at different speeds and loads by finite element simulation. Yu et al. [81] used simulation software to model shark skin flow and obtained the best performance. As shown in Fig. 14a, Yang et al. [82] accurately modeled the cutting temperature of textured tools. Compared with the smooth surface, the V-groove surface has lower friction and cutting temperature values. As shown in Fig. 14b, Xu et al. [83] calculated the surface performance enhancement of micro/nano-structures with different geometrical parameters by simulation technique. As shown in Fig. 14c, Shang et al. [84] developed a simulation model of texture and oil film boundary and obtained the load bearing performance under the current texture geometry parameter by inputting the working conditions and geometry parameters. Establishing the link between micro/nano structures and properties of functional surfaces is an important part of texture pattern design for textures. Accurate simulation models can provide theoretical guidance for texture pattern design, arrangement, and optimization.

Fig. 14

Simulation and optimization design of textured patterns. a Simulation cloud chart of cutting temperature for ball-end mill with V-groove [82]. b Friction performance effect chart of interaction between texture geometric parameters [83]. c Pressure distribution chart of square texture [84]. d Flowchart of Genetic Algorithm optimization [85]. e Optimization of textured patterns using Deep Learning Methods [86]

Optimization algorithms have also been applied to the patterning of textured surfaces. Wang et al. [87] significantly improved the sound absorption performance of composite acoustic structures by using multiple swarm genetic algorithms to the noise control of the moving sub according to the noise reduction needs in actual working conditions. Jiang et al. [85] used a genetic algorithm to optimize the geometric parameters of the double groove texture of the friction performance surface. The flowchart of the genetic algorithm is shown in Fig. 14d. As shown in Fig. 14e, Silva et al. [86] simplified the design of the texturing pattern by training a deep neural network to establish a mapping between the micro-texture and the Stribeck curve. With the gradual improvement of numerical methods and theoretical models, simulation software is used to establish the relationship between functional surface pattern design, surface performance and optimization algorithms, big data, and artificial intelligence are used to provide solutions for functional surface pattern design. In addition, proper simulation modeling can verify and evaluate the performance of texturing patterns, which in turn improves pattern design efficiency and reduces design costs.

In brief, the texturing pattern design gradually develops from simple patterns with regular rows to cross-scale and gradient patterns with complex distribution. The synergy of simulation software, optimization algorithms, artificial intelligence, and pattern design will accelerate the process of texturing pattern design and achieve better surface properties. In addition, the efficient path of learning from nature will provide new ideas to enhance surface performance. Exploring the relationship between surface performance and the microstructure of organism tissues and introducing them into the pattern design process can significantly enhance surface performance.

4 Manufacturing techniques of texturing

Texturing manufacturing technology is the key link to achieve surface properties enhancement. The micro-morphology, material composition and organization of the material surface are changed by processing technology, so as to control the performance and quality of the parts. The manufacturing process involves material forming, process design, parameter optimization, online monitoring and process regulation to process the designed texturing pattern onto the material surface with high efficiency and high precision, so as to solve the surface problems in practical engineering applications. According to the principle of material forming, the preparation methods of textured surfaces can be classified into three main categories: subtractive manufacturing, equal material manufacturing and additive manufacturing.

4.1 Subtractive manufacturing

Subtractive manufacturing is the process of removing some of the material from the surface of a part to create micro/nano structures on the surface. Subtractive manufacturing is the most dominant method for preparing texturing surfaces. According to the way the material surface is formed, it can be divided into the following categories:

4.1.1 Traditional machining

Traditional machining methods rely on the application of force and thermal interactions between tools, energetic particles and the workpiece, leading to material surface chipping, plastic deformation, and the generation of textured surfaces with micro/nano structures. Traditional machining methods, such as micro-grinding, micro-milling and water jetting, are commonly employed as direct techniques for fabricating textured surfaces. Zhang et al. [88] prepared microgrooves with a width of 12μm and a depth of 300nm on the surface of a diamond grinding wheel using a microabrasive water jet and used simulation to predict the surface structure under different machining parameters. Han et al. [73] demonstrated that a 60μm pit arrangement on the tool surface is favorable for improving the frictional contact condition during cutting. Zheng et al. [69] utilized ultrasonic milling to prepare microstructures, eliminating the backcutting interference phenomenon in conventional milling and preparing serrated structures with lengths of about 150μm and heights of 15μm, which significantly improved the shape accuracy of the microstructures. Han et al. [89] developed a mathematical model of pit-like micro-texture during grinding and derived a formula for calculating the microstructure to determine the law of influence of machining parameters on the surface topography. However, traditional machining methods encounter challenges, including low accuracy, limited pattern variety and inadequate adaptability in fabricating textured surfaces. Constrained by microfabrication tools, the processing patterns are restricted to grooves, regular pits. In the case of hard and brittle materials, the presence of extremely small-scale organizational structures introduces additional stress on the surface during machining, rendering mechanical cutting unsuitable for preparing micro-textures on such materials.

4.1.2 Laser texturing

Laser processing is extensively employed in the fabrication of textured surfaces owing to its versatility, high energy density, exceptional resolution and automation capabilities. It stands as the predominant method for generating microstructures. During laser texturing, a laser beam with a specific energy density induces a photothermal effect on the material, resulting in surface heating and reaching a rapid melting or evaporation temperature for material removal. Utilizing high-performance lasers, precise motion control and accurate optical paths, it becomes feasible to process pits and grooves on materials such as metals, semiconductors and ceramics. It is the most commonly used method for the manufacturing of microstructures. As shown in Fig. 15a. Yang et al. [48] used laser processing to produce grooves and tested the corrosion resistance of the surface. Li et al. [90] prepared 100μm staggered microgrooves using laser processing technology, which greatly enhanced the fog collection capacity of the surface. As shown in Fig. 15b. Costil et al. [91] utilized laser ablation to prepare 50μm craters on the surface to improve coating adhesion and mechanical properties. As shown in Fig. 15c and d. Xu et al. [59] using the pulse overlap distribution to raise a 5μm fish-scale pattern on the surface of TC4. When using lasers to prepare texturing surfaces, the synergistic processing of multiple processing modes and lasers with different performances can process complex functional surfaces and improve the finish of textured surfaces [92]. As shown in Fig. 15e and f, Liu et al. [93] integrated laser processing with abrasive belt grinding to enhance the machining efficiency of V-grooves and simultaneously improve the machining quality. Laser surface texturing is a processing technique that utilizes the photothermal effect to remove surface materials selectively. However, the laser processing process often results in heat-affected zones or even cracks on the material surface, which can adversely affect the performance of the component. During the laser ablation process, a pool of liquid metal is generated in the targeted area of the material, which then spills out onto the sample surface due to the applied energy. The formation of irregular projections inside and at the edges of the microstructure complicates the laser surface texturing process and can impact the enhancement of the surface’s functional properties. Given the processing characteristics of lasers, achieving complex structures on heterogeneous surfaces requires the integration of multiple degrees of freedom kinematic units. This integration presents new challenges for the coordinated control and integration of these kinematic units.

Fig. 15

Preparation of textured surfaces using laser processing. a SEM image of intersecting grooves [48]. b SEM image after machining of pits [91]. c SEM image of fish-scale-like texturing surface and d localized enlarged image of (c) [59]. e Schematic diagram of synergistic processing of laser and abrasive belt grinding and f the design of the processed shaped pattern [93]

4.1.3 Chemical etching

When the chemical solution comes in contact with the surface material, it undergoes various reactions like oxidation, reduction and neutralization. This results in a change of the material surface and detachment from its original surface. The advanced mask technology, the etching orientation of the substrate material and the composition of the chemical solution are leveraged to create high-precision and intricate functional patterns. This process provides a way to achieve precise patterning. Chemical etching is a highly advantageous technique due to its ability to process a diverse range of materials with high efficiency. It offers several benefits, including the absence of residual stress and burrs on the workpiece, resulting in superior processing quality. Furthermore, chemical etching is characterized by its simplicity in equipment requirements and cost-effectiveness. As a result, it finds widespread application in various industries, including semiconductors, metals, glass and ceramics. Chen et al. [94] obtained a functional surface with a pyramidal structure of 1μm by controlling the etching direction based on the difference in the etching rate of the solution on the wafer. Chen et al. [28] and Shang et al. [95] proposed a multilayer etching process based on designing the etching selectivity of neighboring masks and prepared nanostructures with a width of 170nm, a depth of 345nm and an aspect ratio of 2.03. Zhu et al. [96] proposed an etching method combining metal-catalyzed chemical etching with an alkaline texturing process and prepared pyramidal microstructures with a prismatic cone size of 257nm in monocrystalline silicon solar silicon panels. Khaskhoussi et al. [97] etching solutions of different compositions such as 6082 aluminium alloy were treated to form microstructures about 2μm wide and 150nm deep, and non-fluorinated alkylsilane coatings were deposited on the surface of the samples, and the silane-treated functional surfaces exhibited superhydrophobic behavior. Matkivskyi et al. [98] utilized the difference in etching rates of different additives. The etching of crystalline silicon by chemical solutions with different additives resulted in the formation of nanoporous structures on the silicon surface. Chemical etching technology encounters various challenges when it comes to the preparation of textured surfaces. One of the main difficulties lies in regulating the etching rate, which is influenced by factors such as reactant concentration, temperature and pH, especially when dealing with microscale complex patterns. Chemical etching generally exhibits isotropic dissolution, making it difficult to control transverse drilling etching in high aspect ratio pattern processing. Moreover, uneven etching in edge etching through chemical etching can negatively impact surface quality. Furthermore, the high toxicity and poor environmental friendliness of certain chemical solutions hinder the widespread application of chemical etching in industrial production.

4.1.4 Electrochemical machining

Electrochemical machining (ECM) has been applied to the preparation of textured surfaces due to its advantages, including low macroscopic forces, good discharge energy controllability, high surface quality of the machined workpiece, no residual stresses and recast layers. The electrochemical machining between metal ions in the electrolyte and the workpiece facilitates the dissolution of material, while the integration of mask technology enables the processing of micro and nanostructures on the surface. By adjusting the composition of the electrolyte and the current density, the removal efficiency of the material surface can be enhanced. As shown in Fig. 16. Lu et al. [99] Preparation of 1.2μm grooves on 304 stainless steel surfaces using electrochemical jet-forming processing. The current density and jet dynamics were explored to regulate the controlled forming of microstructures. Singh Patel et al. [100, 101] introduced a mask electrochemical micromachining technique for fabricating porous flexible electrodes, enabling the creation of 20μm microvias. Zhang et al. [53] combined the high resolution of PDMS with an electrochemical etching technique to etch 60μm pits on the surface of surgical manipulation instruments. The material removal efficiency in electrochemical machining is marginally higher compared to chemical etching. Nonetheless, electrochemical etching is constrained to the processing of electrically conductive materials and encounters issues such as low processing accuracy and inadequate surface quality when dealing with deep-hole processing of intricate structures. In-depth research on the discharge process, removal mechanisms and theoretical aspects will facilitate the advancement of electrochemical machining technology.

Fig. 16

Electrochemical processing of microstructures [99]

4.1.5 Ion beam machining

The ion beam in the high energy state reacts with the material surface atoms and electrons to cause the excitation of the surface electrons and atoms to be shifted, thus manifesting the material removal on a macroscopic scale. Ion beam removal of processed textured surfaces is done by masking techniques to limit the processed area. Jelmakas et al. [102] processed 1-5μm grooves on the GaN surface without surface damage, debris and crack defects using focused ion beam technique. Zhang et al. [92] used a laser to prepare grooves with a depth of 11μm and a width of 20μm on the surface of a Co-Cr-Mo alloy, followed by bombardment of the texturing surface using an ion beam to obtain a higher surface quality. Garcia, et al. [103] treated polycrystalline titanium surfaces with low-energy ion beams and bombarded the target Ti using different intrusion angles to etch nanoscale grooves on the surface. Song et al. [104] fabricated arrays measuring 10μm in diameter and 30μm in height using UV lithography in combination with ion beam etching. Subsequently, they employed ion beam machining to etch the microcolumns into a structure with a specific slope. The ion beam preparation of textured surfaces frequently results in non-uniform material processing and residual bombardment damage, which imposes limitations on its optical and electrical applications. Additionally, when it comes to ion beam processing of large surfaces, the processing time becomes a critical factor that restricts its practical implementation.

4.1.6 Bio-machining

Bio-machining is an environmentally friendly manufacturing technology that integrates the characteristics of living organisms with material-forming processes. It offers several advantages, including low energy consumption and a green approach to manufacturing. Microorganisms have the capability to generate novel substances or modify existing substances during metabolic processes. In the context of material processing, high-energy substances interact with surface constituents, causing their conversion into a liberated state, thereby facilitating material removal. By combining bio-removal processing with mask technology, it becomes feasible to selectively eliminate material from the surface, leading to the formation of desired surface textures. Zhang et al. [105] Processing of pure iron, pure copper and conical copper with grooves 70μm deep and 200μm wide using Thiobacillus oxidans. Ma et al. [106, 107] reviewed the current status of research on different microorganisms, microbial removal mechanisms and material removal rates. Then explored the influencing factors of processing parameters on the quality of metal surfaces and material removal rates. Taufiqurrakhman et al. [108] immersed polycrystalline copper in a medium containing Thiobacillus oxidans and machined heat dissipation microchannels on the surface to a depth of 0.25mm, which had lower surface roughness and higher fluid pressure drop and heat transfer rates compared to milled microchannels. Imran et al. [109, 110] Microstructures with a width of 35μm and a maximum gap of 60μm were prepared on copper surfaces using a digital maskless lithography process and a bio-removal processing technique. Istiyanto et al. [111] utilized bioprocessing techniques to obtain grooves with a depth of 24.35μm for 12h of processing and 43.1μm for 24h of processing and demonstrated that bioprocessing resulted in deeper etching depths than chemical etching. However, bio-machining suffers from the shortcomings of low material removal rate and the operating conditions such as temperature, pH and nutrients directly affect the biological activity, which increases the complexity of the material removal process. Achieving dimensional accuracy and satisfactory surface quality poses challenges, mainly when processing intricate micro-scale structures.

4.1.7 Other subtractive manufacturing

In addition to the manufacturing as mentioned above techniques, textured surfaces can be prepared through MEMS (Micro Electromechanical System) and anodization. Hamidnia et al. [63] fabricated rectangular microgrooves with a depth of 40μm on a silicon substrate by MEMS method fabrication. Sun et al. [112] prepared triangular cone structures with a depth of 600nm on a sapphire surface by reprocessing commercial PSS by selective area wet etching. Yanagishita et al. [113] prepared hexagonally arranged vias with a pore diameter of 60nm, a spacing of 100nm, and a depth of 270nm on a W substrate using an anodic oxidation technique. Singh et al. [114] utilized the EDM technique to machine matrix-aligned craters with a diameter of 174.69μm and a depth of 42μm on the HSS, but microcracks were produced on the surface texturing under thermal action.

With the composite processing of multi-energy fields and its process control, the manufacturing technology will promote the advancement of surface texturing with the goal of high efficiency and high precision. As the primary method for fabricating textured surfaces, the advancement of subtractive manufacturing should focus on achieving efficient processing and high precision. One approach to address this is through composite processing involving multiple energy fields, which can handle the feasibility of removing challenging-to-machine materials and enhance machining accuracy.

4.2 Equal material manufacturing

Equal material manufacturing involves injecting liquid or molten substances into pre-processed molds with micro-nano structures, followed by filling, cooling and mold removal to achieve functional surfaces. This technology is widely used in fabricating optical lenses and gears and preparing micro-textured surfaces on medical implants.

Equal material manufacturing can process a wide range of materials with the advantages of high processing precision and repeatable reproduction, which complies with industrial mass production requirements at relatively low manufacturing costs. As shown in Fig. 17a. Gamonal-Repiso et al. [115] prepared functional microstructures with a depth of about 100μm and a width of about 500μm using injection molding techniques. As shown in Fig. 17b. Lozano-Hernández et al. [116] Preparation of high precision overmolded polymer molded parts by nanoimprinting method, optimization of process parameters and influencing factors during injection molding, and enhancement of their texturing infiltration. García-Camprubí et al. [117] verified that high bumps in the mold during injection molding of high-viscosity liquids do not increase the injection pressure by using simulation techniques with the actual production of ring seals. Kim et al. [74] used a nano-laser to machine differently spaced grooves with a height of 17μm on the surface of 4140 die steel and used an injection molding process to transfer the microstructures on the die surface to move the polymer surface. As shown in Fig. 17c. Gao et al. [118] Surface microstructural transfer of polypropylene and poly parts by injection using laser ablation to machine textured structures on the mold surface.The drawbacks of equal material manufacturing include high mold processing costs and difficulty in processing highly curved surfaces, oblique surfaces, and high-density microtip arrays of micro-devices. In addition, the online monitoring of microstructure in the forming process control and the problem of defects in parts needs to be solved urgently, high-precision and complex-shaped molds will provide the necessary support for preparing functional surfaces.

Fig. 17

Preparation of microtextured surfaces by equal material manufacturing. a SEM image of injection-molded surface [115]. b 3D confocal reconstructed image of a 5μm column [116]. c SEM image of the surface microstructure of a polypropylene material [118]

4.3 Additive manufacturing

Additive manufacturing with a high degree of freedom, prototyping and a wide range of applicability has been applied to the preparation of texturing surfaces, including laser selective fusion, laser selective sintering and Stereolithography. Currently, the materials that can be processed have been expanded to include ceramics, numerical values, rubber and metals. Additive manufacturing is categorized into fused deposition and light-curing based on process characteristics.

Fused deposition manufacturing employs high-energy beams such as laser beams, electron beams and ion beams to elevate the temperature of material particles, causing them to melt. These molten or liquid material particles are then deposited onto the surface of the material. The molten or liquid material is fused with the base material through the subsequent solidification process. This process enables the three-dimensional manufacturing of parts with a texturing structure by employing layer-by-layer scanning. Due to prototype printing characteristics, Fused deposition manufacturing can process functional surfaces with complex configurations. As shown in Fig. 18a. Liu et al. [70] prepared microstructures of bionic fish scales with a tilt angle of 45° and a vertical depth of 707μm using selective laser melting (SLM). As shown in Fig. 18b. Gogolewski et al. [119] fabricated a hip stem cell model from titanium (Ti6Al4V) powder up to 63μm using a selective laser cladding technique, and raised bumps with radii of 121μm, 144μm, and 213μm and pits with radii of 187μm, 218, and 228μm were prepared on the surface of the model. As shown in Fig. 18c. Mekhiel et al. [72] designed texturing patterns with pitch and depth gradients and prepared 316 stainless steel powders into parts with functional surfaces using a laser selective melting device and a fiber laser. Kundera et al. [120] Functional surfaces with micro- and nanostructures were prepared from polyamide powders using the selective laser sintering (SLS) technique. Mourya et al. [121] prepared ABS and PLA parts with microstructures by controlling the printing parameters of fused deposition modeling (FDM), such as layer thickness, nozzle temperature, line width and printing speed. Dwivedi et al. [122] fabricated pits with a diameter of 230.99μm and a height of 137.42μm using an adhesive spray additive. The free energy of the functional surface was enhanced by 72% compared to the non-texturing surface. Chen et al. [123] prepared carbon powder microstructures with a diameter of 1.86 mm and a thickness of 89μm for microfluidic droplet transport and actuation applications using the electrostatic air-jet method. Li et al. [124] Laser-assisted cold spraying technique deposited CNT/Cu composite coating technology on the surface of substrate Cu. Coatings on microstructured surfaces can significantly enhance surface properties. Research on the synergistic relationship between coatings and microstructures will promote the development and application of functional surfaces. While fused deposition manufacturing offers the capability to fabricate intricate geometries, it suffers from limitations in manufacturing accuracy and surface quality due to variations in absorbed energy affecting the powder. Additionally, the solidification process introduces inconsistencies in the melting of material between different layers, leading to a degradation of mechanical properties from layer to layer. Moreover, fused deposition manufacturing exhibits low processing efficiency when it comes to producing textured surfaces with extensive areas and complex structures.

Fig. 18

Preparation of the texturing surfaces using additive manufacturing. a Micro/nano structure prepared using Selective Laser Melting [70]. b 3D reconstructed images of micro-bumps prepared using Selective Laser Melting [119]. c Optical images of micro-bumps prepared using Selective Laser Melting [72]

Stereolithography is a processing technique that capitalizes on the inherent property of photosensitive resins to solidify when exposed to ultraviolet light, resulting in materials with enhanced mechanical properties. By sequentially depositing and curing the light-curable resins using a high-resolution ultraviolet lamp, it becomes possible to fabricate textured surfaces layer by layer. Stereolithography is widely used in processing functional surfaces due to its advantages of fast molding speed, high precision and low cost. Jia et al. [125] Fusion of laser technology with digital micromirror device technology to realize large-area preparation of 50μm microstructures. Wang et al. [126] combined a nanostructured hydrophobic PDMS contact layer with an oxygen-permeable membrane as a functional release film. Fast stereolithography with a 25% reduction in processing time was achieved. Nonetheless, the utilization of the light-curing method for fabricating textured surfaces entails a layer-by-layer modeling process, which includes exposure and development steps for each layer. Undeniably, these additional processes result in decreased processing efficiency. Moreover, the incorporation of specialized optical systems like projection and laser lithography necessitates complex optical arrangements and high-precision kinematic units, thereby elevating the equipment cost associated with stereolithography. Consequently, these factors pose challenges to the widespread implementation of light-curing methods for surface texturing.

Additive manufacturing produces structures above the micro-nano scale of the material surface, which is unsuitable for machining environments under high loads. Nanostructures are susceptible to wear and tear in a reciprocating, high-load processing environment, where the movement of abrasive particles across the surface and the transport of energy can have a negative impact. In addition, additive manufacturing technology can improve the surface quality of functional surfaces by regulating processing parameters and control strategies.

The application scope and advantages and disadvantages of commonly used surface texture preparation techniques are shown in Table 2. In summary, the preparation method of structured surfaces is usually a single processing technology for the preparation of surface structuring, with processing limitations, can be introduced for unique processing materials, thermal, mechanical, optical, electrical, magnetic, acoustic, vibrational and chemical roles such as the formation of multi-energy field coupling of the manufacturing conditions, and explore the extreme manufacturing environment and multi-energy field coupling under the action of the material into the formation of the properties of the new effect and the new mechanism, the development of new manufacturing principles and methods. Introducing breakthroughs in contemporary manufacturing technology to efficiently acquire mechanical information and technology. In addition, for the preparation process of complex morphology and large-area microstructures, high-efficiency, high-precision and environmentally friendly fabrication technology will become the key development direction of microstructure preparation and the online monitoring of the micro/nano-structure during the fabrication process and the adjustment of the processing strategy will also directly affect the functional surface properties.

Table 2 Application scope, advantages and disadvantages of common surface texture preparation technologies

5 Conclusions and future perspective

This study summarizes the applications of surface texturing in different fields, reviews the stages of surface texturing pattern design, analyzes the pattern characteristics in different application scenarios, and describes the characteristics of the preparation techniques and processing methods of micro/nanostructures.

The design and optimization of functional patterns for surface texturing, the development of preparation technologies, and processing control are key to industrial applications. Surface texturing will be more focused on shape-properties integrated and controllable design, production and application. Surface textures will also be more likely to develop in the following directions in the future.

• (1) Intelligent texturing surface: The future of surface texturing will be oriented towards addressing national strategic priorities and critical areas of economic development. Advanced testing devices will be employed to explore the actual working conditions of the comprehensive performance requirements. This will enable adaptive adjustments to the surface morphology, fostering a synergistic relationship between high-performance and multi-functional surface solutions in industrial applications. Surface texturing that realizes the integration of design, manufacturing and application will become mainstream.

• (2) Digital and biomimetic design of texturing surfaces: By establishing the intrinsic connection between performance requirements and texturing pattern design and micro-morphology, digital simulation of textured surfaces is carried out with simulation technology to construct a structural model that meets performance requirements. Significantly, the development of big data and artificial intelligence will further promote the theorization and the systematization of performance-oriented design. In addition, the bionic design of surface texturing represents a significant direction for disciplinary innovation. Unveiling the structure-performance-environment mapping relationship in living organisms will offer research insights and technical guidance for addressing texturing pattern design challenges.

• (3) Digital manufacturing of textured surfaces: The manufacturing techniques are advancing beyond single-process methods towards the development of multi-process synergies and composite energy field coupling processing, with the aim of establishing new manufacturing principles and methods. Manufacturing technology collaboration across scales, the whole process of simulation and optimization will continue to improve the processing parameters control, combined with online monitoring, artificial intelligence and big data analysis to adjust the processing strategy according to the actual demand, and further strengthen the manufacturing process of processing accuracy, processing efficiency control. The large-scale, efficient and controllable manufacturing of complex surface microstructures will find extensive engineering applications.