1 Introduction

According to the Department of Education [1], the Australian federal government has forecasted a shortage of 4100 teachers across the nation by 2025. This projection highlights the need for further investigation into potential strategies to address this issue. The National Teacher Workforce Action Plan, which was developed after the first meeting of all state and federal education ministers post the 2022 federal election [2, 3], includes the proposal to expedite visa processes in order to potentially attract more teachers from overseas. However, the viability of this strategy is questionable, considering that other countries are also grappling with teacher shortages [4]. In the United Kingdom, for example, a recent survey indicated that 69 percent of teachers have considered leaving the teaching profession [5]. Similarly, a 2018 survey revealed an estimated shortage of 112,000 teachers in the United States, a figure that has increased due to the COVID-19 pandemic [6]. Consequently, it is improbable that Australia would attract a substantial number of teachers from these particular countries to alleviate its own teacher shortage crisis. Additionally, while some Asian countries may offer potential recruitment opportunities, teachers might be deterred from migrating to Australia due to lengthy registration procedures, English language requirements and the possibility of discrimination [7]. What is more, with the ongoing unpredictability of COVID-19 transmission, there is a risk of borders closing again, hampering such initiatives. Therefore, the strategy of relying on overseas teachers to address the teacher shortage issue in Australia seems unpromising, and more sustainable strategies should be explored.

Given the circumstances outlined above, it is crucial to conduct research aimed at exploring sustainable solutions to address the teacher shortage crisis in Australia. This study aims to contribute to this goal by analysing domestic female completion data in Initial Teacher Education (ITE). The objective of the study was to identify the types of ITE degrees (undergraduate and postgraduate) and study modes that attract and are more likely to be completed by female ITE students. The research question guiding this investigation was: What patterns are evident in the available data on female completion of Initial Teacher Education across various degree types and study modes in Australia?

The decision to focus on domestic female ITE completion data is based on the historical trend of the teaching profession attracting more females than males [8]. Therefore, efforts to attract more females to the teaching profession might yield positive results in addressing the nation’s teacher shortage crisis. Moreover, the data analysed in this research excludes international students, as they are likely to return to their home country after completing their studies once their study visa expires. Therefore, international students are much less likely to contribute to the teacher workforce pipeline in Australia.

Existing literature does not appear to address female ITE completion data in relation to the teacher shortage issue. The Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership [9] reported on ITE completion rates for a cohort of pre-service teachers who commenced their study in 2011, but trends in female ITE completion rates over time were not included, nor was there a focus on addressing the teacher shortage crisis. An inquiry into the teaching profession by the Australian Council of Deans of Education [10] also did not cover these aspects. Further, reports on completion rates in higher education have not specifically focused on trends in female ITE completion data [11, 12]. Although there is empirical research on teacher workforce supply, it has not investigated the workforce ITE training based upon study mode.

2 Background literature

Teacher shortage has been a persistent problem in Australia since the 1970s [13]. The Guardian newspaper reported that the COVID-19 pandemic further exacerbated this issue in some schools, with teachers taking sick leave due to contracting the virus infection [14]. In 2017, Edwards and Weldon [15] conducted a study on the potential impact on the teacher supply pipeline of online ITE students enrolled in an Australian university that was not in their state of residence. Their research analysed completion data from 2003 to 2013. The findings revealed a significant number of individuals living in a different state than their enrolled institution, which carries implications for teacher supply planning. However, Edwards and Weldon's study did not delve into female and male online completion data or the potential impact on female or male teacher workforce supply.

Internationally, the Open University Wales has taken steps to broaden its recruitment and selection criteria for ITE courses, with the aim of enhancing access to teacher education and promoting diversity within the teaching workforce [16]. As part of this effort, individuals possessing a relevant undergraduate degree are now given the opportunity to pursue teacher training through a flexible blended distance learning route. This program is available on a part-time or salaried basis. The flexible nature of the program (in-school teaching combined with online and block university study), which has ITE students working in schools guided by a school teacher-mentor and an Open University Wales ITE course academic, has attracted individuals looking to change careers, who bring valuable transferable skills to their teaching practice. The Open University Wales hopes that these ITE graduates will go on to secure teaching positions within schools, contributing to the broader goal of addressing teacher shortages in Wales. Whilst this study does not specifically look at the gender of the ITE students enrolling in the program, it did report that more females enrolled than males, a finding that was consistent with Welsh Government data that found that double the number of females is training to teach in Wales than males [17]. Similar observations can also be made in the teaching workforce of Australia and in other western countries [1, 2, 9, 10, 18].

There are several factors that contribute to the increasing number of women in the teaching profession. Teaching has traditionally been associated with women's work, especially at the primary school level [19]. This perception can discourage men from pursuing a career in teaching younger students due to concerns about being less nurturing than females and facing accusations of child sexual abuse [20]. Consequently, due to these negative stereotypes, women are more likely than men to choose teaching as a profession. However, retaining women in their ITE courses and within the teaching profession itself remains a challenge.

In terms of the influence of gender on ITE completion rates and study modes, Vineer [21] conducted a study on an ITE course in England and discovered that providing flexible options for the Primary Postgraduate Certificate of Education course enhances female participation. This flexibility creates opportunities for women who may not have previously considered a teaching career to pursue teacher training. The flexibility in course structures includes study modes that can be completed while children are at school or in the evenings, as well as online learning options. Woodhouse [22] also emphasised the significance of course flexibility, especially for women with parental responsibilities who require ITE courses that accommodate their parenting needs. These findings are consistent with previous research that highlights the challenges faced by ITE mothers in terms of finances, family routines, and domestic commitments while balancing their lives inside and outside the classroom [23, 24].

At the time of writing, no research has been found that addresses female ITE completion data in relation to teacher shortage within the Australian context. The research presented in this paper aims to fill this important gap. Specifically, it explores trends in female ITE completion numbers and identifies which types of ITE programs across various study modes, females are more likely to complete. These findings can inform policy and practice decisions to maximise the number of females completing ITE degrees and subsequently improve the overall teacher supply pipeline.

3 Method

3.1 Data

The data used in this study were derived from non-identifiable open access sources covering the period from 2001 to 2021. The data encompassed undergraduate and postgraduate ITE degrees across various modes of attendance (internal, external, multimodal) for domestic female students. Information from 2001 to 2019 was obtained from the uCube website of the Department of Education, Skills and Employment [25], while data for 2020–21 were sourced from the higher education statistics website of the Department of Education [26]. These data were collected from all higher education institutions across Australia and were made available to the Department of Education.

For this study, a “course of study” is defined as an educational program leading to a university degree, as per the definition provided by the Department of Education [27]. “Completion” refers to the number of students who have fulfilled all the academic requirements for their respective degrees. The focus on completion, rather than enrolment, is intended to emphasise the supply of teachers entering the workforce. Internal education denotes on-campus study, while external education refers to off-campus or online study. The category of “multimodal” represents a combination of both internal and external modes of study.

3.2 Data analysis

The aim of the data analysis was to investigate patterns in the numbers of female graduates in the different modes of study for both undergraduate programs (see Table 1) and postgraduate programs (see Table 2). The timeframe was represented using scatter plots accompanied by linear trend lines for enhanced visualisation (see Figs. 1 and 2).

Table 1 Completion rates of undergraduate female students in Initial Teacher Education degrees from Australian higher education providers by mode of study, 2001–2021 (domestic students only) [25, 26]
Full size table
Table 2 Completion patterns of domestic postgraduate female students in Initial Teacher Education degrees by mode of study in Australian higher education providers, 2001–2021 [25, 26]
Full size table
Fig. 1
figure 1

Female completion in undergraduate ITE degrees from Australian higher education providers for the period 2001–2021 by mode of study [25, 26]

Full size image
Fig. 2
figure 2

Mode of study and female completion in postgraduate Initial Teacher Education degrees from Australian higher education providers, 2001–2021 [25, 26]

Full size image

4 Results

4.1 Trends in undergraduate ITE female completion data

An analysis of the data on undergraduate female completions has revealed several significant trends. Firstly, it was consistently observed that the number of completions in the internal mode of study exceeded those in the external and multimodal modes of study. However, a notable downward trend was identified during the period (2001–2021) under study (see Fig. 1). This trend is further supported by a percentage decrease of 39.07% during this period, with an average annual decrease of 3.06% for internal female ITE completions. In sharp contrast to these findings, we will now examine the completion numbers for the external and multimodal modes.

Figure 1 demonstrates a notable pattern indicating a consistent rise in completion numbers for both external and multimodal modes of study between 2001 and 2021. This trend is further supported by the percentage changes in completion numbers, revealing a substantial increase of 191.49% for the external mode and 107.55% for the multimodal mode during this period. Moreover, the average percentage growth rates for these modes align with this upward trend, with the external mode showing a growth rate of 6.34% and the multimodal mode recording a growth rate of 5.23%.

In addition, a noteworthy observation is the significant decrease in female ITE completion numbers for the internal mode of study in 2020. These findings suggest that the internal mode of study may be less promising in terms of achieving a high rate of female ITE completion compared to the external and multimodal modes of study, as indicated by the undergraduate female ITE completion data.

4.2 Trends in postgraduate ITE female completion data

The analysis of postgraduate Initial Teacher Education degrees with regard to female completion rates reveals several notable findings. Table 2 and Fig. 2 present the completion numbers for postgraduate ITE degrees across various modes of study.

First and foremost, the internal mode of study consistently exhibits higher completion numbers in comparison to the external and multimodal modes of study. Figure 2 illustrates a general upward trend in the internal mode, albeit with a pronounced decline in completion numbers from 2014 to 2021. This decline is substantiated by the percentage change, which indicates a decrease of 19.13% from 2001 to 2021 (refer to Table 2).

Conversely, the external and multimodal modes of study witnessed significant increases in completion numbers. The percentage change for the external mode of study displayed a substantial rise of 264.40%, while the multimodal mode of study exhibited an extraordinary increase of 1089.11%.

Additionally, the average change in completion numbers corroborates these observations. The internal mode of study exhibited a decline of 1.30%, whereas the external and multimodal modes of study demonstrated increases of 8.10% and 18.66% respectively. These findings emphasise the multimodal mode of study as having the highest growth rate in completion numbers.

4.3 Comparison of undergraduate and postgraduate female ITE completion

When examining the percentage change in completion rates for undergraduate and postgraduate degrees during the period under study (2001 to 2021), several notable observations emerged. As depicted in Fig. 3, the postgraduate degree in the multimodal mode of study exhibited the highest increase in female ITE completion, reaching an impressive 1089.11%. It was closely followed by the external mode of study, which experienced growth rates of 264.40% and 191.49% for the postgraduate and undergraduate degrees respectively. Furthermore, the undergraduate degree in the multimodal mode of study displayed a substantial percentage change of 107.55%.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Trends in female completion numbers in Initial Teacher Education (ITE) courses by qualification level and mode of study, 2001–2021 [25, 26]

Full size image

In stark contrast to these modes of study, the internal mode of study exhibited declines in completion rates. For the undergraduate degree, there was a decrease of 39.07%, while the postgraduate degree saw a decline of 19.13%.

When comparing the average percentage change in female ITE completion numbers across different degree types, similar observations can be derived from the findings of the percentage change analysis. Figure 4 provides a visual representation of these averages. Notably, the postgraduate degree in the multimodal mode of study exhibits the highest average percentage change at 18.66%. This is followed by the external mode of study for both postgraduate and undergraduate degrees, which display average changes of 8.10% and 6.34% respectively.

Fig. 4
figure 4

Average percentage change in completion numbers of female students in Initial Teacher Education (ITE) courses by qualification level and mode of study, 2001–2021 [25, 26]

Full size image

Figure 4 also reveals that the undergraduate multimodal degree has the next highest average percentage change at 5.23%. In contrast, the internal mode of study demonstrates a decline in the average change for both undergraduate and postgraduate degrees, with respective values of − 3.06% and − 1.30%.

5 Discussion

Through examining trends in female completion data for undergraduate and postgraduate ITE degrees from Australian universities between 2001 and 2021, this research aimed to identify patterns across different modes of study, namely internal, external, and multimodal. The findings provide valuable insights into degree types and modes of study that have experienced growth or decline in completion numbers, offering potential implications for enhancing female teacher supply, and ultimately addressing the predicted teacher shortage crisis in Australia.

The study reveals that the multimodal mode of study for postgraduate degrees exhibited the highest percentage change in completion growth during the study period. It was followed by the external mode of study for both undergraduate and postgraduate degrees, and then the multimodal mode of study for undergraduate degrees. Conversely, the internal mode of study experienced a decline in completion growth for both degree types. These findings have implications for federal and state governments in formulating policies aimed at attracting more females to the teaching profession. One such policy approach could involve funding initiatives that subsidise tuition fees in ITE degrees, making them more attractive to both female and male students. Additionally, prioritising government-subsidised tuition fees in postgraduate ITE degrees may help attract more females to the teaching profession.

The upward trends observed in the multimodal and external modes of study can be attributed, in part, to technological advancements during the study period. The increased use and accessibility of the internet in homes [28] have contributed to the growth in female ITE completions in these modes of study. Furthermore, universities' adoption of online delivery methods for ITE degrees has been facilitated by these technological advancements [29,30,31]. Additionally, the rise in female ITE completion rates, particularly in 2020, may be linked to the COVID-19 pandemic, which necessitated a shift to online learning [32].

Continued monitoring of general patterns in female ITE completion across different study modes for undergraduate and postgraduate degrees is essential to understand which degrees and study methods are more likely to achieve higher female completion rates. Further research focusing on the factors influencing the increasing trends of female ITE completion in the multimodal study mode for both undergraduate and postgraduate degrees would be beneficial in maximising the number of successful female ITE graduates.

Moreover, analysing data pertaining to different types of ITE qualifications (such as early childhood, primary, and secondary school levels) and specialised learning areas (such as mathematics, English, and history) could provide insights into the specific preferences of females. These data sets can guide policymakers and universities in tailoring their recruitment strategies to attract more female students to ITE degrees. By doing so, the number of female completers in these degrees is likely to increase, thereby contributing to addressing the teacher shortage crisis in Australia.

6 Key study recommendations

Findings from the current study indicate that a number of areas could be considered by universities, schools and governments to enhance female student ITE completion and subsequently teacher employment in schools. For example, enhancing the accessibility of external and multimodal postgraduate ITE degrees for women given the study findings have shown a positive trend in female completions in ITE programs offered through these modes of study. Policymakers and universities should focus on developing strategies and initiatives that make these study modes more accessible and appealing to female students. This could include providing flexible study options, online learning opportunities, and support for balancing academic studies with other commitments.

Furthermore, providing financial support and incentives to attract more female students to ITE programs, policymakers and universities could consider offering financial support, scholarships, and incentives specifically targeted at female enrolment and completion. This can help address financial barriers and encourage more women to pursue teaching careers.

In fostering supportive learning environments, universities should create inclusive and supportive learning environments to support the success of female students in ITE programs. This could include mentorship programs, networking opportunities, and initiatives that address the unique challenges faced by women in tertiary study and more generally in teacher education.

To implement these practical strategies, collaboration between universities and schools would facilitate the establishment of outreach programs, mentoring initiatives, and partnerships that promote teaching as a viable and rewarding career choice for female ITE students. By working together, universities and schools can provide a clear pathway for female students from ITE programs to teaching positions.

Whilst these practical measures can help to address female ITE student access to education courses and employment, future research could focus on a number of measures:

  1. 1.

    Further research is needed to investigate the factors that contribute to the positive trends in female completion rates, particularly in the multimodal and external modes of study. This would potentially help policymakers and universities develop targeted strategies to further enhance female participation and completion in ITE programs.

  2. 2.

    This study suggests that the shift to online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic may have influenced completion patterns. Future research should delve into the medium to long-term effects of the pandemic on female ITE completion rates and explore whether these changes are sustained beyond the immediate circumstances.

  3. 3.

    Whilst the current study did not analyse the ITE completion data for different types of qualifications and specialised learning areas and their completion patterns for different types of ITE qualifications (e.g., early childhood, primary, secondary) and specialised learning areas (e.g., mathematics, English, history), such investigations could provide insights into the specific preferences and trends among female students, with the possibility of informing targeted recruitment strategies and addressing specific teacher shortage areas.

  4. 4.

    It is also important to evaluate the effectiveness of strategies and initiatives aimed at increasing female representation in ITE programs and addressing the teacher shortage. Future research should assess the outcomes and impacts of these interventions to guide ongoing improvements and inform evidence-based decision-making.

By addressing these research needs and gaps, policymakers, universities, and researchers can further advance knowledge and understanding in the field of teacher education, contribute to the development of effective policies and practices, and ultimately work towards addressing the teacher shortage in Australia.

7 Conclusion

This study provides a comprehensive overview of the trends observed from 2001 to 2021 in female completion rates in Initial Teacher Education (ITE) degrees across various study modes, namely internal, external, and multimodal, at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels. The research findings offer valuable initial insights into the specific degree types and study modes that exhibit higher rates of female completion. As a result, policymakers and universities are encouraged to focus their efforts on maximising female ITE enrolment and completion by targeting and making these specific degrees and study modes more accessible.

The data analysis revealed a consistent upward trend in completion rates for external and multimodal study modes in both undergraduate and postgraduate ITE degrees. Thus, policymakers and universities should prioritise recruitment strategies in these areas to attract more female ITE candidates. Ongoing monitoring of these trends is essential for developing effective strategies to address the teacher shortage crisis in schools. Additionally, further exploration of the factors driving the positive trends in female representation would enable policymakers and universities to fine-tune their efforts and better understand the underlying dynamics.

Given the significant impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent shift to online learning, it is pertinent to investigate whether these circumstances have exerted medium to long-term influences on the trends of female ITE completion. An in-depth analysis of the effects of this shift on completion patterns can provide valuable insights into the preferred ITE degrees among females. Such insights can inform policymakers and universities in formulating targeted approaches to address the overall teacher shortage in Australia effectively.

This study provides important insights into the completion rates of female students in ITE degrees, which have implications for universities, schools and government policymakers. For universities, the findings highlight the need to develop targeted strategies to attract and support more female students in ITE programs. Universities can focus on creating inclusive and supportive learning environments, providing mentorship programs, and offering financial support or scholarships specifically aimed at encouraging female enrolment and completion. Further, schools can collaborate with universities to establish outreach programs, mentoring initiatives, and partnerships that promote teaching as a viable and rewarding career choice for female students.

The insights from this study are of potential benefit to policymakers in shaping policies and allocating resources to address the persistent teacher shortage in Australia. This may involve implementing government funding programs to support universities in expanding their ITE programs. Policymakers can also introduce initiatives to enhance professional development opportunities, provide mentoring support, and offer incentives for female teachers to enter and remain in the profession.