1 Introduction

Stories matter. Representation matters. While there is a general consensus around these ideas in the field of literacy education, a focus on limiting literacy to reductive models focused on basic skills has taken center stage in conversations around the world recently (see Reading Research Quarterly Science of Reading Special Issues #1 and #2). In this special issue, Stories that matter: the matter of stories, we aim to expand the conversation around what matters and the role of literature in literacy education in contextualized and humanizing ways. In this article, I examine multilingual representations in children’s picturebooks and argue for the importance of including more authentic linguistic representations of plurilingual characters.

Language and literacy are inextricably linked with identity, yet most children experience children’s literature in schooling contexts in only one language. For many students, this language is not their home or preferred language, so they rarely, if ever, see their home language represented in school and children’s literature. While the number of multilingual children’s books is increasing, the majority of these books continue to privilege English and present a distinct separation of languages that is not representative of plurilingual communicative practices. People who are plurilingual engage in translanguaging, a dynamic and flexible process using all their linguistic resources that results in new and sophisticated communicative practices.

This paper draws upon translanguaging theories (García, 2020; Wei, 2018) and multimodal perspectives (Serafini, 2022) to investigate the linguistic representations and ways languages are privileged in multilingual children’s books with an in-depth analysis of Dear Primo: A Letter to My Cousin (Tonatiuh, 2010). I analyzed instances of translanguaging throughout the text for the ways the author/illustrator used it for a variety of purposes within specific systems and structures (Wei, 2011). Building on the translanguaging analysis, a multimodal analysis was utilized to examine the use of semiotic resources in the representation of two languages and translanguaging within the modes of written language and illustration. This research was guided by the following questions:

  1. 1.

    How, by whom, and in what contexts were translanguaging practices used?

  2. 2.

    How are English and Spanish represented throughout the picturebook?

In the following sections, I discuss the theoretical frameworks grounding this study and research literature related to multilingual literature, identity, and representation.

2 Theoretical frameworks

Policies and curricular assumptions and implications continue to privilege standard English. In the USA, restrictive language policies have negatively impacted countless children (Kelly, 2018). In Australia, scholars have critiqued the curricular and assessment implications that language, literacy, and Standard Australian English are seen as synonymous (Dixon & Angelo, 2014; McIntosh et al., 2012, etc.). These monolingual-centric orientations are problematic in many ways, and they are particularly visible with assessments like Australia’s National Assessment Program for Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) because students’ ability for “meaningful participation […] depends critically on proficiency in Standard Australian English (SAE) as a first language” (Macqueen et al., 2019, p. 266).

Many international scholars who have problematized English-only, monoglossic ideologies and policies, are advocating for plurilingual approaches to education (Cross et al., 2022; Council of Europe, 2018, etc.). The terms around this work have been evolving for years, but more recently, the term “multilingual, is used at societal level, describing the many languages used by society groups, whereas plurilingual describes an individual’s knowledge of two or more languages at varying degrees of competence” (Kersten & Ludwig, 2018, p. 8). For more discussion around this, see also García and Li (2014).

Progress is being made in supporting plurilingual approaches (Duarte, 2019; Heugh et al., 2019; Leung & Valdes, 2019). For example, the Common European Framework for Reference for Languages now includes scales for plurilingual and pluricultural competence (Council of Europe, 2018), and translanguaging practices are becoming more widely supported, used, researched, and written about (Cross et al., 2022). Yet, there remains a wide range of ways scholars define translanguaging.

In the following section, I provide an overview of translanguaging theory to situate how I will be defining and framing the data analysis and findings related to the first research question: How, by whom, and in what contexts were translanguaging practices used? Next, I include an overview of multimodal theory that informed the data analysis and findings related to the second research question: How are English and Spanish represented throughout the picturebook?

2.1 Translanguaging theory

Translanguaging was originally used to label a specific language practice and was not intended as a theoretic concept (Wei, 2018, p. 15). However, the definitions of translanguaging have evolved over time which has resulted in lack of consistent usage, particularly in relation to the term code-switching and its use as a practice versus theory (it can be both). Originally, García (2009) used translanguaging as an overarching term which included code-switching, but she later argued these two concepts were not in alignment and epistemologically and theoretically at odds (Vogel & García, 2017). Code-switching is often used while describing the separation of two languages and two separate linguistic systems. Li (2017) argues that code-switching fails to recognize the dynamic and sophisticated linguistic practices of plurilingual speakers when language in use is reduced to being perceived as the mixing of two named languages.

Translanguaging theorists and scholars view plurilingual people as having a single integrated linguistic repertoire which allows them to navigate fluidly through various linguistic structures and systems for a wide range of purposes (García, 2020; Wei, 2011). In contrast to deficit-based views on language use, this theory positions translanguaging practices as a process where knowledge is constructed beyond the boundaries of language. In alignment with the National Council of Teachers of English (2021), I define translanguaging as “the deployment of a speaker’s full linguistic repertoire without regard for watchful adherence to the socially and politically defined boundaries of named (and usually national and state) languages” (Otheguy et al., 2015, p. 281) and “an approach to language pedagogy that affirms and leverages students’ diverse and dynamic language practices in teaching and learning” (Vogel & García, 2017, p. 1).

Translanguaging theory privileges plurilingualism which results in plurilingual students being able to “engage in literacy in ways that deepen their understanding of texts, generate more diverse texts, develop students’ confianza in performing literacies, and foster their critical metalinguistic awareness” (García & Kleifgen, 2020, p. 561). While translanguaging pedagogy and practices have been explored extensively in the theoretical and research literature, significantly less writing has been done on the use of translanguaging in children’s picturebooks (Kersten & Ludwig, 2018). As García (2009) notes, translanguaging does not only encompass one’s cognitive and linguistic repository, but it also includes the following:

reconceptualizes language as a multilingual, multisemiotic, multisensory, and multimodal resource for sense- and meaning-making, and the multilingual as someone who is aware of the existence of the political entities of named languages and has an ability to make use the structural features of some of them that they have acquired (Wei, 2018, p. 22).

In order to examine the translanguaging practices present in multilingual children’s books, I draw on multimodal theories to explore the considerations beyond cognitive and linguistic repositories.

2.2 A social semiotic perspective on multimodal theory

School-aged plurilingual readers engage with multimodal texts, such as picturebooks, on a regular basis. As Duncum (2004) states, “…there is no avoiding the multimodal nature of dominant and emerging cultural sites” (p. 259). Visual images, written language, and design elements are orchestrated in new and complex ways in every picturebook children encounter. While the majority of the picturebooks found in classrooms are monolingual, the book explored in this study included an additional language that adds another layer of complexity. Considerations for the social, cultural, and historical contexts for the inclusion and representations of an additional language are essential for understanding the meaning potentials present in this multilingual picturebook.

A social semiotics perspective on multimodality (Kress, 2010) involves the understanding that all modes of representation and communication contribute to meaning-making. Social semiotic theories extend beyond traditional language-centric theories of communication to examine the various semiotic resources that are present in contemporary forms of representation and communication (Van Leeuwen, 2005). Many scholars reject the notion that monomodal representation and communication exist and argue that every text is a multimodal ensemble (Kress, 2010; Serafini, 2014, etc.).

Social semiotic theories acknowledge the motivation and interest of composers (in this study, author/illustrator) and their semiotic choices and work (Gualberto & Kress, 2019). Kress (2010) described this work as a form of orchestration in which he attributed agency and power to the rhetor (for purposes of this study, the creator/composer/author/illustrator) by acknowledging the complex layers of decisions made about modal uses in the process of creating the ensemble. The potential meanings made possible by any mode are not to be considered in isolation, but rather seen as “interwoven” with the meanings made possible by other modes (Jewitt, 2017, p. 16) within a given text (Flewitt et al., 2017) and cultural context.

3 Multilingual picturebooks

Multilingual literature has been present since the late nineteenth century but has more recently seen an increase in production and scholarly attention (Kersten & Ludwig, 2018). Much of the research has focused on the many benefits of multilingual, often referred to as bilingual, picturebooks in language learning. For purposes of this manuscript, I will use the term multilingual as the broader concept of books with more than one language. These picturebooks are frequently categorized into one of three categories in the research literature:

  1. (1)

    Parallel bilingual picturebooks in which the story is presented in two languages in the same book. The languages/translations can be found on the same page, facing pages, or in different parts of the picturebook.

  2. (2)

    Dual version picturebooks are the same picturebook translated and published in separate books that have identical design and illustration.

  3. (3)

    Translingual picturebooks are primarily written in one language, but include words, phrases, or short passages from other languages (Vanderschantz et al., 2022). The analysis in this study is focused on a translingual picturebook, Dear Primo: A Letter to My Cousin (Tonatiuh, 2010).

Some documented findings of using multilingual picturebooks include supporting multilingual children’s comprehension of “complex words, sentences, and concepts” (Kleyn, 2016, p. 206), building background knowledge to help better understand the content, and opportunities for raising metalinguistic awareness (Gacía & Li, 2014). Beyond linguistic and academic advantages, they have also shown the potential to normalize multilingualism (Naqvi et al., 2013; Ziadi, 2020) and assist in the revitalization of Indigenous languages (Hadaway & Young, 2013).

3.1 Multilingual picturebooks and identity

Multilingual literature written and/or illustrated by multilingual and multicultural authors can provide representation with its “hyphenated identities” (Elsner, 2012, p. 412) of the multilingual world in which we live. The typically monolingual and often monocultural representations found in literature in classrooms prevent opportunities for multicultural/multilingual children to see themselves in stories and academic contexts. Multilingual picturebooks can provide knowledge of diverse cultures, demonstrate respect for other languages, and help underrepresented children feel included in the school curriculum (Kümmerling-Meibauer, 2013; Qiaoya & Xiaoning, 2016). de Pinho Correia Ibrahim (2020) argues that “it is a fundamental right of children to access their language repertoire, not just as a one-off scaffolding technique or a tolerated approach, but as an acknowledgement of their plurilingual identity” (p. 16). When this is made possible through multilingual picturebooks, it can alter language hierarchies and attitudes (Daly, 2018a).

Literature scholars have long emphasized the importance of representation in books (racial, cultural, socio-economic status, gender, sexual orientation, etc.) and their role as cultural artifacts which reflect societies’ values and ideologies (Stephens, 2013), but critical language awareness has received less attention (Daly & Short, 2022). Critical language awareness moves beyond language structure and systems to examine the power connected to different codes or forms of language (Fairclough, 1989). It is important to consider the language hierarchies and representation of language present in multilingual text. How and in what ways are languages represented? Privileged? Daly (2018a) found that colonial languages often dominated dual language books and explained, “the placement of text for different languages within a dual language picturebook communicates messages indicating the relative importance of the languages in question” (p. 111).

Many of the dual language picturebooks fail to provide authentic representations of the sophisticated language practices of plurilingual people. Drawing on all their linguistic repertoire with considerations for social context, plurilingual people use translanguaging as part of their daily communicative practices. They are not people with two separate language systems, but rather plurilingual people with one single integrated linguistic repertoire (García, 2020; Wei, 2011). There remains a need for more high-quality translingual picturebooks to better represent the multilingual world outside the monolingual learning environment found in most classrooms.

3.2 Multilingual picturebooks analysis

Much of the research on multilingual picturebooks has been related to educational practices and language learning (Bland & Lütge, 2014; Mourão, 2016), language attitudes (Daly, 2018a), and representation and identity (de Pinho Correia Ibrahim, 2020). All of this work has provided an important foundation for exploring and using multilingual picturebooks largely focused on the linguistic analysis and representation. There has been limited research on translingual books with consideration of the linguistic landscape (Landry & Bourhis, 1997) through a multimodal analysis lens with specific attention to design elements and typography. This study aims to fill that gap.

Landry and Bourhis (1997) describe the linguistic landscape as a critical analysis of multilingual picturebooks with specific considerations for which languages are present, their order, types size, and weight found on the outer, inner, and body of the picturebook. These aspects should be critically considered in relation to the power and ideological representations and privileging of language. Daly (2019) and Vanderschantz et al. (2022) draw on the linguistic landscape research (Landry & Bourhis, 1997; Daly, 2018a, b) and multimodal analysis literature (Kress, 2003; Painter, 2017; van Leeuwen, 2006) to examine the typographic design in Māori-English bilingual picturebooks. They explored the layout, design, and text presentation as semiotic resources that provide meaning potential with specific attention to typeface, type size, type color, and page layout. Like Serafini and Clausen (2012), they found typography was its own semiotic system which had an effect on language status with every design decision. The analysis in this article builds on this work, but adds the additional consideration of image analysis and uses a translingual picturebook instead of bilingual picturebooks.

4 Method

The following sections provide an overview of the process to select the book that is analyzed in this study; the data analysis process used to identify how, by whom, and in what contexts translanguaging practices were used; and the multimodal analysis process used to explore how English and Spanish were represented throughout the picturebook.

4.1 Picturebook selection

I examined 25 multilingual (Spanish/English) picturebooks that had received or been nominated for an award related to multicultural or multilingual literature (Pura Belpre, Pinnacle Best Bilingual Children’s Book, International Latino Book Awards, Tomás Rivera Mexican American Children’s Book Award, Americas Award, etc.) for use in a larger, literacy-related classroom study on translanguaging (Moses et al., 2021). The two classrooms of children participating in the study included one classroom of bilingual Latinx children living in the USA and another classroom of bilingual Latinx children living in South America. Due to the cultural and linguistic demographics, I considered only Spanish/English picturebooks written by multilingual authors and illustrators.

I then narrowed the list to include only picturebooks that fit in the translanguaging category and excluded parallel bilingual and dual version picturebooks. Moving beyond the broad category of translanguaging, I utilized the Libros for Language Translanguaging Text Typology for further analysis of the remaining books (Burns et al., 2023). The typology includes the following categories: (1) Translanguaging Texts, (2) No Concurrent Translation, (3) Comprehensive Text and Illustration Integration, (4) Illustrations Only, (5) Concurrent Translation, and (6) Character Driven Concurrent Translation. I eliminated all picturebooks that did not fit the Comprehensive Text and Illustration category which is described as “texts written primarily in English that fluidly integrate LOTE (Languages Other Than English) words and phrases in the text, illustrations, and dialog, using a variety of translanguaging strategies. The authors may or may not provide translations of the LOTE words and phrases” (Burns et al., 2023). Three books fit this category, but I selected the book Dear Primo: A Letter to My Cousin (Tonatiuh, 2010) because it most closely aligned with the literacy content and focus of the study related to reading and composing letters to learn about new international friends (see Moses et al., 2021 for a detailed explanation of the literacy content).

4.2 Translanguaging data analysis

In order to analyze how, by whom, and in what contexts translanguaging practices were used, I first coded and identified all instances of translanguaging throughout the picturebook (covers, endpages, book). Next, I coded for which character was using translanguaging practices. Finally, I conducted a third round of analysis which involved identifying the context of when the translanguaging was used.

4.3 Multimodal analysis: Spanish and English

Drawing on Serafini and Reid’s (2019) multimodal content analysis, I developed initial categories to explore how English and Spanish are represented throughout the picturebook. At a linguistic level, I analyzed the amount of Spanish and English used throughout the picturebook. Then, like Vanderschantz et al. (2022), I analyzed the following design elements related to the typographic presentation of each language using the linguistic language approach: (1) typeface, (2) type size, (3) type color, and (4) page layout. For this study, I added illustration as an additional point of analysis. See Table 1 for an explanation of how these design elements were identified and analyzed. Kress and van Leeuwen note, “Regardless of where they are placed, and regardless of the degree to which they are connected to each other, salience can create a hierarchy of importance among elements, selecting some as more important, more worthy of attention than others” (2006, p. 210). Using these elements for analysis, I examined the salience and hierarchy of Spanish and English usage.

Table 1 How design elements were measured and identified (adapted and modified from Vanderschantz et al., 2022)
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5 Findings

Dear Primo: A Letter to My Cousin (Tonatiuh, 2010), the Pura Belpré award winner in 2011, is a story of two cousins living in different countries, Mexico and the USA, writing letters to each other. Outside of the first and last double-page spreads of the body of the picturebook, the book consists of letters the cousins are writing to each other about their lives, their community, and their cultural practices. Carlitos lives in Mexico. Charlie lives in a city in the USA, but he reports that his family is from Mexico. There is an author’s note in the back of the book along with a glossary of Spanish words. In the author’s note, Tonatiuh tells the story of his upbringing in San Miguel, a small city in Mexico with his Mexican mother and American father. He reflects on immigration and his time in boarding school in Massachusetts and college in New York. He shares his perspectives about his bicultural identity and his perspective that despite the apparent differences of the two settings, he finds that people are more similar than different. This perspective is presented throughout the book as Charlie and Carlitos share about their lives in what appears to be a large urban city in the USA and rural Mexico. Section 5 is organized by findings for the analysis of this text in relation to each research question.

5.1 How, by whom, and in what contexts were translanguaging practices used?

The majority of this book is written in English, with translanguaging instances throughout. For purposes of identifying and counting translanguaging instances, I identified an instance of translanguaging when the author switched from one named language to another named language (from English to Spanish or Spanish to English). For example, the sentence “I just got a letter from my primo, my cousin, Carlitos” (Tonatiuh, 2010, p. 1) would be counted as two instances of translanguaging—the first when the author was speaking English, but then shifted to Spanish using the word primo, and the second when the author switched from Spanish (primo) back to English to finish the sentence. Proper nouns such as Carlitos vs. Charlie were not considered English or Spanish, thus not considered for translanguaging purposes. Intravisual text labeling images was also not considered translanguaging because there was no clear sequence or language to indicate movement between named languages.

The initial analysis resulted in the identification of 71 instances of translanguaging. See Table 2. The translanguaging instances on the front cover, back cover, and inside dust jacket were not coming from a character, but rather narration and overview of the book. Charlie, the character from the USA only used translanguaging for a total of six times on three pages, and all instances were speaking/writing in English and using the sole Spanish word primo (cousin). The remainder and nearly all translanguaging instances came from the character from Mexico, Carlitos’ letters. As the primary content of the book is the letters that the boys write about their lives, the context of the translanguaging mostly occurred when Carlitos was describing his life in Mexico including his environment, games he played, food he ate, things he did with his family, and celebrations. He also used primo to refer to his cousin, Charlie, in two instances.

Table 2 Translanguaging instances
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5.2 How are English and Spanish represented throughout the picturebook?

The book is English dominant with translanguaging instances throughout, typically coming from Carlitos. Table 3 provides an overview of the amount of Spanish and English used throughout the book.

Table 3 Spanish and English usage
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5.2.1 Typographic representation

Typographic representations carry with them ideological representations and can make text salient to different degrees which can create a hierarchy of importance. To explore the representations of English and Spanish, I analyzed and compared the typeface, type size, type color, and page layout. In this picturebook, English was presented in primary narrative format only whereas Spanish was found in both narrative format and intravisual text. Table 4 provides an overview of the findings.

Table 4 Typographic findings
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The typeface of Typewriter Spool SFT Bold, a Serif font, was used to represent Charlie from the USA whose speaking and written letters were almost completely in English. Serif fonts are often thought to be more formal and classic than San Serif fonts. This font was only altered with italics on two occasions when Charlie used the Spanish word primo. In contrast, all parts of the picturebook associated with Carlitos were in a Chauncy Pro Bold font, a San Serif font described as “bouncy, artistic, childish handwriting” (allfonts.co). When Carlitos used Spanish in the primary narrative, this font was italicized, thus drawing attention to the Spanish words. However, it was not italicized when used intravisually. The intravisual text included labels next to pictures of Spanish words that had been referenced in the primary narrative.

The type size and color of both Spanish and English text found throughout the primary narrative text, excluding intravisual text, were the same: black and size 18. However, the intravisual use of Spanish in the illustrations was made more salient with a larger font size of 26 and white text contrasting the colorful full bleed double-page spreads.

The page layout analysis typically conducted with bilingual books involves examining the placement of each language, for example, examining which language comes first and if they are placed on top of each other, side by side, or in different sections. However, this type of analysis could not be replicated with this translanguaging category of picturebook because the languages are not separated by layout. Both languages appear throughout the primary narrative of the text. All pages are English-dominant, and on most of Charlie’s pages, English is the only language present. All Carlitos’ pages include Spanish words dispersed through the narrative and intravisually.

5.2.2 Image and orchestration

In addition to the written language/linguistic and typographical analysis, analysis of image/illustration is critical in understanding the meaning potentials in multilingual representations in the picturebook. This is particularly true with texts like, Dear Primo: A Letter to My Cousin (Tonatiuh, 2010) because of the full bleed layout where the illustration covers the entire page. Tonatiuh places the primary narrative text in open spaces of the illustration such as the sky, a background wall, a river, and a street. He also interweaves Spanish labels through many of the illustrations, giving more salience to the Spanish terms referenced in the text than English.

The illustrations parallel the text and were hand drawn, then colored and collaged digitally. The illustrations related to Charlie typically feature urban and modern settings, attire, and activities, whereas illustrations connected with Carlitos feature rural settings, attire, and activities. The color palette remains consistent throughout and does not consistently align with a character like the font does. The main characters are illustrated similarly with skin tones and size being the same, only attire differing between them.

6 Discussion

There were many possible ways to interpret the findings from the multimodal analysis of Dear Primo: A Letter to My Cousin (Tonatiuh, 2010). My initial interpretations as a white, cisgender researcher who frequently draws on critical discourse approaches were related to the many ways in which the English language and urban living in the USA were privileged. Many scholars have documented the privileging of English in multilingual picturebooks and educational settings (Cross et al., 2022; Kersten & Ludwig, 2018, etc.), and data documented in the findings of this manuscript also support this theory.

English dominates the narrative with 770 words compared to only 66 Spanish words. While English is dominant on every page, the Spanish words are only used intermittently, never in complete sentences or paragraphs. Even this intermittent use is primarily seen in Carlitos’ speaking or writing. One could interpret this as positioning English as the most important language and also the language of complete, coherent, monolingual ideas, while positioning Spanish as less important and only periodically used. This positioning and privileging of English reinforces colonizing patterns of catering to monolingual English speakers and a large English-speaking publishing audience.

The typographical choices also signal the marginalization of Spanish and Carlitos, the Spanish speaker. The use of Serif font indicates a modernized and more formal association with Charlie. The use of San Serif font associated with Carlitos, particularly Chauncy Pro Bold, signals a possible lack of formality and education with “bouncy, artistic, childish handwriting” in which some letters are improperly capitalized (e.g., the lowercase n is represented as a capitalized N). Additionally, only Spanish words are italicized, used to label pictures, and present in the glossary. These design and typographic choices signal the “otherness” of the Spanish language.

The illustrations also signal privileging of English and the USA with Charlie being represented in modern contexts with modern resources. Intravisual text is used to label Spanish words, but there is no intravisual text to label items in Charlie’s illustrations, signaling an assumption that readers will know all the words Charlie used, but they might need pictorial support to understand Spanish words used by Carlitos. Carlitos is illustrated in rural contexts with fewer modern resources, something which is often associated with a lower socioeconomic status and American’s historical stereotypes about people from Mexico. Like other scholars, I believe the ramifications of ways languages and cultures are presented in multilingual books have the potential to impact children’s language attitudes (Daly, 2018a) and identity development (Kersten & Ludwig, 2018). After my initial analysis, I worried this picturebook was marginalizing Spanish and Spanish speakers.

However, context matters. Tonatiuh (2010) provides a detailed context and reflection about his life growing up in a situation similar to Carlitos, as well as experiences similar to Charlie when he moved to the USA. In his description of where he grew up in San Miguel, he discusses some immigration hardships. However, his tone is positive, noting he splits time between New York and San Miguel, his parents still live there, and it was recently named a UNESCO World Heritage Site. He shares that he was struck by how similar the children he saw in New York were to his childhood experience in Mexico, even though there were many outward differences. Tonatiuh reports being inspired by the ancient art of the Mixtecs and other Mexican cultures when illustrating his books. His books have won the Pura Belpré Award and Américas Award, and he talks, often translanguaging, in interviews about his love for Mexico and his first language, Spanish (https://duncantonatiuh.com).

With this background knowledge, I sought to make a “positive turn” (Rogers & Wetzel, 2013, p. 62) in my analysis by exploring “moment of hope, agency, and liberation” (p. 88). Drawing on Martin’s work in positive discourse analysis (2004) and translanguaging theories (García & Wei, 2014), I generated an additional set of interpretations of this analysis which integrated a positive-oriented “focus on community, taking into account how people get together and make room for themselves in the world in ways that redistribute power without necessarily struggling against it” (Martin, 2003, p. 183).

In contrast to my earlier interpretations, one could interpret the 770 English words and 66 Spanish words as a plurilingual author/illustrator’s attempt to model translanguaging and integrate Spanish into a large publishing market with more authentic language representations than dual language picturebooks. In this case, understanding that the majority of his publishing audience would be English speakers, he might have modeled the sophisticated and strategic practices of translanguaging for the following reasons: (1) so that plurilingual speakers would have the opportunities to see their linguistic practices in a published picturebook, not merely translated beside an English version; (2) so that monolingual readers would be able to make meaning with the text, but also be exposed to Spanish and translanguaging practices; (3) to share his love for his first language and culture with both mono- and plurilingual readers.

I previously noted that the use of a Spanish glossary, italicized font in the narrative and enlarged and different colored font (white) in the illustrations for Spanish words signaled the “otherness” of Spanish. Yet, in the world of multimodality, scholars often think of salience as lending itself to focus and importance (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2021). Tonatiuh’s typographic alterations might not have been based in deficit or othering, but rather wanting to draw attention and give weight to Spanish, just as he has done in other books he has written.

Tonatiuh (2010) has reported that this story was not autobiographical specifically in the sense of writing letters to his cousin, but that it was representative of his observations as a child in Mexico, of which he speaks fondly, and his observations of other children in New York. Based on his writing in the author’s note and interviews he has given, he loves Mexico and has chosen to share about it in multiple publications. This lends itself to interpretations that his illustrations of Carlitos in rural Mexico were not stereotypes or associated with deficit views, but instead representations of his experiences and observations that he wanted to share with his readers.

Pedagogical implications from this analysis include the need for close analysis of picturebooks and linguistic representation. Considerations about affordances and constraints of translanguaging picturebooks versus dual language picturebooks can help teachers think about diversity in multilingual representations in their classroom. Conversations around why and for what purposes the author uses translanguaging could be an important starting point for considering language bias and representation in classrooms, libraries, communities, and the broader global context.

7 Conclusion

Neither set of interpretations was right or wrong, but this does reinforce the idea that context, background, and author’s background and purpose matter. This is particularly true when thinking about multilingual and multicultural representations and stories. Tonatiuh, a multicultural, plurilingual author/illustrator brings a unique and insider perspective to a story with one American and one Mexican character. As so many scholars note, representation in books matters, and he shared his multicultural perspectives (Mexican/American). There remains limited research in the multimodal analysis of translingual picturebooks (Kersten & Ludwig, 2018; Vanderschantz et al., 2022), yet it is a significantly more authentic representation of multilingual practices than found in the dual language picturebook translation structures. It is crucial that authentic multilingual representation, as seen with translanguaging, continues to gain attention in the publishing, pedagogical, and research communities in order to move forward the matter of authentic stories with multilingual representations.