Abstract
Silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) and graphene oxide (GO) are two promising nanomaterial that have attracted considerable attention for their unique properties and applications. However, the conventional synthesis methods of SiNPs and GO often involve hazardous chemicals and high energy consumption, which pose environmental and economic challenges. Therefore, green and sustainable synthesis methods of SiNPs and GO are highly desirable. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in the green synthesis of SiNPs and GO using various natural sources, such as plants, fungi, bacteria, algae, clay, etc. We also discuss the functionalization of SiNPs and GO with acrylic resin to form hybrid nanocomposites for anti-corrosion applications. The advantages and challenges of these green methods are highlighted, and the future prospects are outlined. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in the green synthesis of SiNPs and GO-based nanocomposites for anti-corrosion applications, and to inspire further research in this emerging field.
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1 Introduction
Corrosion of metal surfaces a major problem in various industrial and infrastructural sectors, leading to significant economic losses and safety hazards [48] To mitigate these problems, various anti-corrosion coatings have been developed, including organic coatings such as acrylic resins. However, these coatings have limited durability and may not provide adequate protection in harsh environments [63]. Recently, the blend of graphene and silica nanoparticles have drawn interest as a promising solution for enhancing the performance of anti-corrosion coatings. Graphene, one-single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice, has excellent mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties. Silica nanoparticles, on the other hand, have good chemical stability and can serve as a matrix for the graphene oxide [54].
Silica nanoparticles functionalized graphene oxide acrylic resin is a composite material that has seen significant attention in recent years due to its potential applications in various fields, particularly in anti-corrosion coatings. The combination of silica nanoparticles and graphene oxide with acrylic resin results in a material with unique properties that make it suitable for use as an anti-corrosion coating [1].
The terminology “green synthesis” of silica nanoparticles describes the process of creating silica nanoparticles employing ecologically benign and biodegradable precursors. To create silica nanoparticles, a natural process involving plants, microbes, and enzymes is used. Due to worries about the toxicity and environmental impact of conventional methods for creating silica nanoparticles, this technique is gaining popularity [36].
Aloe vera, cucumber, and chrysanthemum extracts, as well as bacteria and fungi, are some of the most often employed natural sources for the creation of silica nanoparticles. In order to create silica nanoparticles, these sources contain naturally occurring silica precursors such silicic acid.
Green synthesis has the advantage of avoiding the use of dangerous chemicals and minimizing the generation of waste products [33]. Additionally, silica nanoparticles with distinctive size, shape, and surface properties that can be customized for particular purposes can be created by using natural precursors. Green synthesis does come with some difficulties, though. For instance, this method frequently yields fewer silica nanoparticles than conventional synthesis techniques. Additionally, the size and shape of the nanoparticles generated can vary due to the lack of standardization in the synthesis process [86].
An environmentally sound replacement for conventional synthesis techniques could be found in the green synthesis of silica nanoparticles. The yield and consistency of silica nanoparticles created using green synthesis are being improved, despite some difficulties, as part of ongoing research in this field.
Green synthesis is advantageous due to its avoidance of the use of detrimental chemicals, instead harnessing less harmful resources to produce Silica nanoparticles, which have demonstrated exceptional mechanical properties. Jadoun et al. [33] and thermal properties, as well as their high surface area [86]. Graphene oxide, on the other view, is a excellently conductive material with a large surface area, posing it an ideal candidate for use in coatings [25] (Fig. 1).
Silica nanoparticles with different green synthesis precursor [36]
When combined with acrylic resin, these materials form a composite with excellent mechanical and thermal properties, as well as high conductivity and a large surface area [56].
The anti-corrosion properties of this composite material can be linked to its high conductivity and enormous surface area [2]. The high conductivity of the graphene oxide allows for efficient charge transfer, which in turn reduces the potential for corrosion. The large surface area of the silica nanoparticles and graphene oxide also allows for more efficient adsorption of corrosive species, further reducing the potential for corrosion [85].
Additionally, the chemical functionalization of silica nanoparticles with carboxylic acid groups can enhances the anti-corrosive properties by increasing the hydrophilicity of the surface, which can further reduced the potential for corrosion [8]. This can also improve the compatibility of the composite with the acrylic resin, leading to a more homogeneous and stable material [24].
Composite materials made of acrylic resin, graphene oxide, and silica nanoparticles has been investigated as an anti-corrosion coating in several studies. For instance, Necolau and Pandele [55] showed that this material can protect aluminium alloy from salt spray corrosion, and Ollik and Lieder [59] showed that it can protect steel from seawater corrosion. This material has unique properties that make it suitable for anti-corrosion applications, like high conductivity, large exterior, and chemical functionalization [3, 55, 59].
2 Synthesis and characterisation
Silica nanoparticles functionalized graphene oxide acrylic resin is a composite material that has shown great potential as an anti-corrosion coating as a result of its unique properties, including high conductivity, enormous surface area, and chemical functionalization [3].
Synthesis and characterization of silica nanoparticles functionalized graphene oxide acrylic resin is an important area of research in materials science and nanotechnology [44]. The unique properties of silica nanoparticles and graphene oxide make them suitable for various applications, such as in coatings, composites and biomedical materials [1]. The most common and frequently used methods of synthesising silica nanoparticles functionalized graphene oxide acrylic resin are sol–gel synthesis, hydrothermal synthesis, and co-precipitation (Table 1).
2.1 Sol–gel method
Sol–gel synthesis approach involves the mixing of silica precursor, such as tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS), with a surfactant and a base. The solution is then allowed to gel and heated to form the silica nanoparticles. This method have some advantages over the other process such as room temperature processing. The sol–gel method can be performed at room temperature, which is a significant advantage over other methods that require high temperature processing. The sol–gel method results in a highly homogeneous and even spread of silica nanoparticles on the graphene oxide surface [50]. The particle size in the sol–gel method could be controlled by altering the parameters of the sol–gel process; the silica nanoparticles' particle size may be easily regulated. Along with their benefits, they also have certain drawbacks, such as a slow reaction time. Sol–gel reactions can take hours or even days to complete, which can be problematic for large-scale production. Additionally, the solvent might be difficult to remove. The sol–gel process frequently uses organic solvents, which can be expensive and challenging to totally remove from the end product. Due to the cost of the chemicals used and the length of time needed for the reaction, the sol–gel process may be expensive.
A study by Azimi et al. [6] reported the synthesis of a new many-component curing agent for epoxy resin utilizing graphene oxide (GO) and poly (amidoamine) (PAMAM) dendrimer-grafted silica nanoparticles (GSD). The composite was found to exhibit considerable thermal stabilization of epoxy resins as a result of its dendritic amino-functionalization. The GSD was prepared by attaching hyperbranched PAMAM-grafted silica nanoparticles (SD) to the surface of GO. The epoxy resin was treated with varying quantities of GSD, and the final products were compared to ethylenediamine-treated epoxy resin in terms of scorch content, indicating successful functionalization of silica nanoparticles and attachment of SD to the surface of GO [6].
Vivar Mora et al. [80] investigated the incorporation of unfunctionalized and functionalized silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) into a sol–gel based matrix as a means of providing more effective corrosion protection on a mild steel substrate. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) and white light interferometry (WLI) were used to characterize coating microstructure and properties, while electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and accelerated salt spray testing were employed to evaluate corrosion protection and coating durability. Results of the electrochemical tests and exposure in the neutral salt spray test indicated that the addition of silica nanoparticles improved the corrosion resistance of the coating matrix. The most effective performance was observed when the nanoparticles were functionalized, as functionalization helped to avoid agglomeration during incorporation, resulting in a more uniform distribution of nanoparticles within the coating formulation and an enhancement of the coating's ability to resist corrosion [80].
Liu et al. [43] introduced a novel technique for creating silica nanoparticle-covered graphene oxide (SiO2-GO) Nano hybrids and anti-corrosive SiNPs-GO/waterborne polyurethane acrylic (WPUA) coatings. The method begins by producing silane-functionalized graphene oxide (A-GO) through a simple covalent functionalization process utilizing 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane on graphene oxide (GO). The SiNPs-GO nanohybrids are then synthesized through a sol–gel method utilizing tetraethoxysilane in a water-alcohol solution. The resulting SiNPs-GO nanofillers were added to WPUA to create the SiNPs-GO/WPUA coatings. The presence of GO, A-GO, and SiNPs-GO nanohybrids is confirmed through X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectra, and transmission electron microscope. The SiNPs-GO nanohybrids exhibit smaller sizes in comparison to unfunctionalized GO. The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and field emission scanning electron microscope reveal that the SiNPs-GO nanohybrids can be homogeneously dispersed in the WPUA coatings at a 0.4% loading level, resulting in excellent anti-corrosive performance. This technique demonstrates the potential for SiNPs-GO nanoparticles to be utilized in the field of anti-corrosive nanofiller industries, providing a convenient method for the production of anti-corrosive coatings [43].
2.2 Hydrothermal method
In the synthesis of silica nanoparticles functionalized graphene oxide acrylic resin using hydrothermal method, a combination of silica precursor, surfactant, and graphene oxide is heated under high pressure and temperature [16]. The hydrothermal process has both benefits and drawbacks. Its benefits include great homogeneity, which can produce silica nanoparticles that are well-defined in terms of size and shape. Also there is always high yield: the hydrothermal method can have a high yield of silica nanoparticles, leading to a higher overall production rate [83]. This approach could carried out under mild conditions (i.e. at low temperature and pressure) making it suitable for functionalizing delicate materials like graphene oxide [23]. Some of the disadvantages of this procedure are complex process i.e. the hydrothermal method can be a complex process that requires specialized equipment and a high level of expertise to carry out effectively. It also takes a long reaction time: the hydrothermal reaction can take several hours to complete, which can be a disadvantage for large-scale production. Lastly can be very expensive: the hydrothermal method can be expensive due to the cost of the specialized equipment required and the chemicals used in the reaction [23].
Dong et al. [20] reported the synthesis of silicon dioxide-graphene oxide (SiO2-GO) nanohybrids which was achieved through the surface modification of graphene oxide (GO) utilizing the hydrolysis of tetraethoxysilane (TEOS). These nanohybrids were then incorporated into acrylic resin as a reinforcing agent to produce acrylic nanocomposites. The structural characterization of the SiO2-GO nanohybrids was reported conducted via X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and the morphology and dispersion of the SiO2-GO were examined using scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. The results indicated that the SiO2-GO nanohybrids were well dispersed within the acrylic resin matrix. Additionally, the thermal, mechanical, and chemical resistance properties of the SiO2-GO/acrylic resin nanocomposites, with varying mass ratios of SiO2-GO to acrylic resin (0.04, 0.06, 0.08, 0.10, and 0.12 wt. %), were evaluated and compared to those of pure acrylic resin and GO/acrylic resin nanocomposites with similar mass ratios of GO to acrylic resin. The results demonstrate that the incorporation of SiO2-GO effectively enhances various properties of acrylic resin, offering a novel approach for the preparation of graphene-based nanocomposites [20].
2.3 Co-precipitation method
Co-precipitation method is achieved by mixing silica precursors and graphene oxide in water and then adding a base to start the precipitation of silica particles. Compared to other techniques, the co-precipitation techniques also has some advantages and limitations. Some of these positives are high production rate, which enable the process to be carried out quickly, allowing for high production rates compared to other methods [11]. In addition to being easy and not requiring specialist equipment, the co-precipitation approach is also inexpensive and suitable for usage in a variety of settings. Due to the cheap cost of the chemicals required, the co-precipitation process is comparatively practical when compared to other procedures [11]. The major draw-back of this synthetic approach is poor particle size distribution when compared to other approaches. The co-precipitation process can produce poorly distributed silica nanoparticles, which can result in aggregated particles, poor coverage of the graphene oxide surface, and decreased surface area. The silica nanoparticles synthesized using the co-precipitation method can have a lower surface area compared to those synthesized using other methods [32].
Motamedi and co-workers created a new metal–organic framework (MOF) nano-pigment for use in making high performance epoxy composites with outstanding anti-corrosion and thermal–mechanical properties [51]. They fabricated the nanoceria-decorated cerium (III)-imidazole network (NC/CIN) using a co-precipitation process that combined cerium (III) and 2-methylimidazole in methanol. The NC/CIN structure was then analyzed using various techniques, including UV–visible spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and more. The characterisation showed that the CIN hybrid products were formed through chemical bonding and networking, resulting in a pore-free volume of 0.047 cm3 g−1. The NC/CIN- incorporated epoxy composite were evaluated for thermos-mechanical and anti-corrosion performance, and was found to provide superior protection against corrosion and self-repair capabilities. Additionally, the epoxy composite demonstrated improvements in cross linking density, ductility, and toughness [51].
2.4 Functionalization of graphene oxide with green synthesized silica nanoparticles
The functionalization of graphene oxide with green synthesized silica nanoparticles have been reported to be achieved by reacting the graphene oxide using different procedures [82]. The basic principle here is the oxygen related functional groups attached to the graphene, providing space for functionalization to occur (Fig. 2).
Functionalisation process for green synthesised silica nanoparticles with graphene oxide
The purpose of functionalizing graphene oxide with green synthesized silica nanoparticles is to enhance its properties and applications in various fields. For example, graphene oxide can be used as a nanocarrier for enzyme immobilization and as a sustainable biocatalyst [79]. Graphene oxide can also be used as a near infrared-responsive nano-drug delivery system for chemo-photothermal synergistic inhibition of tumor cells [27]. Moreover, graphene oxide can be used as a nanoenzymatic sensor for hydrogen peroxide detection [29]. By attaching silica nanoparticles to graphene oxide, the stability, biocompatibility, and catalytic performance of the material can be improved.
2.5 Characterization techniques of graphene oxide with green synthesized silica nanoparticles
Various characterization techniques have been used to study the properties of silica nanoparticles functionalized graphene oxide acrylic resins. These include Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Atomic force microscopy (AFM), and white light interferometry (WLI). These techniques are useful for determining the degree of functionalization of the graphene oxide and the dispersion of the silica nanoparticles within the acrylic matrix. For the determination of thermal stability and fraction volatile components, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) is used. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Raman spectroscopy can also be used to confirm the presence of graphene oxide in the material [61].
Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is usually used for identifying the functional groups and chemical make-up of nanoparticles, particularly silica nanoparticles. The method works by detecting whether the sample transmits or absorbs infrared light. The resulting spectrum data can reveal details about the chemical make-up and molecular connections of the nanoparticles [71]. The FTIR spectra of silica nanoparticles typically exhibit prominent absorption bands in the 400–1000 cm−1 range due to the stretching vibrations of Si–O–Si and in the 1400–1600 cm−1 range due to the bending vibrations of Si–O–Si. The hydroxyl (OH) groups on the surface of the silica nanoparticles may also cause weaker absorption bands in the range of 3200–3600 cm−1 [84]. The strength and shape of the spectral peaks in the FTIR spectra of silica nanoparticles can be affected by a number of variables, including particle size, surface area, and aggregation state. In order to evaluate the spectrum data, it is important to carefully analyze the FTIR spectra and consider these parameters [71] (Figs. 3, 4).
FTIR spectra of silica nanoparticles [52]
Scanning Electron Microscopy image of synthesized silica nanoparticles: a reduced enlargement view of a considerable number of newly prepared silica nanoparticles. Note the great dimension uniformity of all the nanobeads, confirming their high mono-dispersion; b blow-up of a few nanobeads, showing a diameter of around 270 nm for the central nanoparticle most visible in the foreground [30]
For the morphological characterisation of nanoparticles, especially silica nanoparticles, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is a potent imaging technique that is frequently utilized. SEM imaging provides details on the dimensions, morphology, and surface characteristics of nanoparticles. However, the chemical makeup of the particles cannot be determined using SEM. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) or X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy can be used to collect spectrum data regarding the chemical makeup of silica nanoparticles (XPS) [81].
Both methods use X-rays to excite the sample's electrons, which subsequently release distinctive X-rays that are indicative of the elements it contains. EDS is an elemental analysis method that reveals details about the sample's composition based on the identification of distinctive X-rays it emits. XPS is a surface-sensitive method that reveals details about the make-up and chemistry of components found on a sample's surface [30]. A popular method for determining the crystal structure of silica nanoparticles is X-ray diffraction (XRD). In X-ray diffractometer-driven diffraction (XRD), a sample is exposed to an X-ray beam, and the diffraction patterns the X-rays produce are used to identify the sample's crystal structure [13].
The crystalline structure of the particles, including the crystal lattice type and any impurities present, can be identified in the instance of silica nanoparticles using XRD [57]. Sharp peaks with characteristic angles that correspond to particular crystal planes within the particle may usually be seen in the XRD pattern of silica nanoparticles. The size of the nanoparticles can be inferred from the breadth of these peaks, which can be used to determine the type of silica crystal present, such as quartz or cristobalite. As a quick and non-destructive technique for silica nanoparticle characterization, XRD is an important tool for the creation of novel materials and the investigation of their properties. However, it should be noted that XRD has limitations because it can only reveal details about the nanoparticles' size and crystal structure, not their shape or surface characteristics [57] (Table 2).
2.6 Properties of the synthesized silica nanoparticles functionalized graphene oxide acrylic resins
The properties of silica nanoparticles functionalized graphene oxide acrylic resins depend on the synthesis conditions such as the type and ratio of acrylic monomers, the concentration of graphene oxide [72] and the size and surface charge of the silica nanoparticles [1, 10]. These factors can affect the mechanical properties [53] such as tensile strength and Young's modulus, as well as the thermal stability of the material.
The functionalization of graphene oxide with silica nanoparticles can also improve the thermal conductivity of the acrylic resin [15]. Additionally, the presence of graphene oxide and silica nanoparticles can enhance the electrical conductivity of the material [4], making it useful for applications such as electromagnetic interference shielding. There are different properties that the material can possess. Some of these properties are shown in Table 3.
2.7 Different anti-corrosion mechanism and their matrix materials
There are different reported anti-corrosion mechanism examples of these mechanism techniques are cathodic protection, coatings, corrosion inhibitors and materials selection, these mechanisms explain strategic interaction for corrosion inhibition. Different nanoparticles utilize different procedures, like through adsorbing on metal surfaces, scavenging oxygen and other corrosive agents, formation of film on metallic surface or pH and conductivity alteration. Below is a table with examples of some nanoparticles and their inhibition mechanisms (Table 4).
3 Anti-corrosion performance of silica nanoparticles functionalised graphene oxide acrylic resin
3.1 Mechanism of anti-corrosion action
Mechanism of anti-corrosion action of silica nanoparticles functionalized graphene oxide acrylic resins is not fully understood. However, it is believed that the graphene oxide play as a hindrance to the penetration of corrosive species, while silica nanoparticles provide chemical stability and improve the adhesion of the coating to the metal surface. Additionally, the presence of silica nanoparticles can increase the pH of the coating, creating a more alkaline environment that is less favourable for corrosion. The anti-corrosion mechanism of silica nanoparticles functionalized with graphene oxide acrylic resins can be explained through several key processes such as barrier effect of graphene oxide (GO), enhanced adhesion, chemical stability and pH adjustment.
3.1.1 Barrier effect of graphene oxide (GO)
Graphene oxide, when dispersed in acrylic resins, forms a nanocomposite with a two-dimensional structure. This structure acts as a physical barrier to the penetration of corrosive species, such as moisture and ions, into the underlying metal substrate The impermeable nature of GO sheets restricts the diffusion of these corrosive agents, thereby slowing down or preventing the corrosion process [73].
One of the methods to prevent corrosion is to apply a coating layer on the metal surface that can act as a barrier against the corrosive agents. However, conventional coating materials, such as paints and polymers, have some limitations, such as low adhesion, poor durability, and high permeability. These coatings can crack, peel off, or allow the corrosive agents to pass through them and reach the metal surface [28].
GO can overcome these limitations by forming a nanocomposite with acrylic resins, which are a type of polymer that can be used as a coating material. When GO is dispersed in acrylic resins, it forms a two-dimensional structure that covers the metal surface uniformly and tightly. This structure blocks the penetration of corrosive species, such as moisture and ions, into the metal substrate (Fig. 1). The GO sheets are impermeable to these species and prevent them from diffusing through the coating layer. As a result, the corrosion process is slowed down or stopped.
3.1.2 Enhanced adhesion
Silica nanoparticles (SiO2NPs) are tiny particles of silicon dioxide that can be modified to bond with acrylic resins, a type of polymer coating material. When SiO2NPs are mixed with acrylic resins, they form a nanocomposite that sticks better to the metal surface than the resins alone. This strong adhesion prevents the coating from cracking or peeling off over time, which could expose the metal to corrosive agents such as water, oxygen, and salts. By keeping the coating intact, SiO2NPs reduce the risk of corrosion starting on the metal surface.
3.1.3 Chemical stability
Silica nanoparticles contribute to the chemical stability of the coating. They can react with corrosive species, such as acidic ions, by neutralizing them. This chemical stability prevents localized corrosion and degradation of the coating.
3.1.4 pH adjustment
The presence of silica nanoparticles can influence the pH of the coating. Silica is known to possess buffer properties, and its interaction with moisture can lead to the release of alkaline species. This, in turn, increases the pH of the coating, creating a more alkaline environment. A higher pH is less favourable for many corrosion processes, providing an additional layer of protection.
3.2 Effect of synthesis conditions on anti-corrosion performance
The anti-corrosion viability of silica nanoparticles functionalized graphene oxide acrylic resins can be affected by the synthesis conditions. For example, increasing concentration of graphene oxide in the coating can upscale the inhibiting features and enhance the anti-corrosion performance [59]. However, too high a concentration of graphene oxide can also lead to a reduction in the mechanical features of the coating.
The size and surface charge of the silica nanoparticles can also affect the anti-corrosion performance. Smaller silica nanoparticle have been shown to improve the anti-corrosion performance [80], while negatively charged silica nanoparticles have been found to be more effective than positively charged ones [37].
3.2.1 Concentration of graphene oxide (GO)
3.2.1.1 Upscaling inhibiting features
Increasing the concentration of graphene oxide in the coating can significantly upscale the inhibiting features of the material. This is primarily attributed to the unique properties of graphene oxide, such as its two-dimensional structure and impermeability to corrosive species. As the concentration of GO increases, the density of these protective barriers also rises, resulting in improved anti-corrosion performance [14].
3.2.1.2 Reduction in mechanical properties
However, it is essential to strike a balance between anti-corrosion performance and mechanical properties. Too high a concentration of graphene oxide can lead to a reduction in the mechanical strength and flexibility of the coating. This reduction in mechanical properties can compromise the coating's integrity and long-term durability, potentially negating the benefits of enhanced anti-corrosion performance [14].
3.2.2 Size and surface charge of silica nanoparticles (SiO2NPs)
3.2.2.1 Influence of SiO2NP size
The size of silica nanoparticles plays a crucial role in anti-corrosion performance. Smaller silica nanoparticles have been found to be more effective at inhibiting corrosion [19]. This is because smaller particles can form a denser and uniform protective layer on the surface, reducing the likelihood of corrosive agents penetrating the coating.
3.2.2.2 Surface charge of SiO2NPs
The surface charge of silica nanoparticles also affects their anti-corrosion capabilities. Negatively charged silica nanoparticles have demonstrated higher efficiency in inhibiting corrosion compared to positively charge ones [63]. The negative charge may facilitate repulsion of corrosive ions and their adsorption on the coating's surface, preventing them from reaching the metal substrate.
3.3 Comparison of SiO2NPs-GO-Ar with other anti-corrosion coatings
Silica nanoparticles functionalized graphene oxide acrylic resins have been found to have better anti-corrosion performance compared to traditional acrylic coatings [14]. They have also been shown to be more effective than coatings containing only graphene oxide or silica nanoparticles [85]. However, further research is needed to fully compare their performance to other advanced anti-corrosion coatings, such as those based on nanoparticles or self-healing systems.
Table 5 compares a polymer composite coating with polydopamine modified mesoporous silica/graphene oxide. Polydopamine is a biopolymer that can adhere to various surfaces and form a thin film that can enhance the adhesion and corrosion resistance of the coating [58]. Graphene oxide is a two-dimensional nanomaterial that has excellent mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties, and can improve the barrier effect and anticorrosion performance of the coating [58]. The mesoporous silica nanoparticles are modified with polydopamine and loaded with corrosion inhibitors, such as benzotriazole or 2-mercaptobenzothiazole, which can be released in response to pH changes or corrosion products [58]. Federico et al. reports that this composite coating showed superior anticorrosion behavior compared to pure polymer coating or coating with unmodified mesoporous silica nanoparticles [58].
The second composite in the table is a nano coating with zinc oxide, titanium dioxide, silica dioxide, and graphene or carbon nanotube. These are different types of nanoparticles that can be used as fillers in anticorrosion coatings to enhance their physical and chemical properties. Zinc oxide and titanium dioxide are metal oxides that have photocatalytic activity and can degrade organic pollutants on the coating surface [34]. Silica dioxide is another name for silica nanoparticles, which can act as nanocarriers of corrosion inhibitors as explained above. Graphene and carbon nanotube are carbon-based nanomaterials that have high strength, conductivity, and flexibility, and can improve the mechanical stability and barrier effect of the coating [34]. The reference [69] reports that these nanocoatings showed improved anticorrosion performance compared to conventional coatings without nanoparticles [34].
Thirdly, Table 5 shows an alkyd resin composite coating with nano CaCO3 particles. Alkyd resin is a type of polymer that is widely used as a binder in anticorrosion coatings due to its low cost, easy application, and good adhesion [34, 58]. Nano CaCO3 particles are calcium carbonate nanoparticles that can act as fillers in anticorrosion coatings to increase their hardness, toughness, and thermal stability. The reference [70] reports that this composite coating showed better anticorrosion performance than pure alkyd resin coating or coating with micro CaCO3 particles [58].
3.4 Applications of silica nanoparticles functionalised graphene oxide acrylic resin as anti-corrosion coating
Numerous experiments have reported the use of functionalized graphene oxide acrylic composite for anti-corrosion test with positive results. Massimo studied the effect of different concentrations of functionalized graphene oxide (fGO) on properties of coatings formed on a carbon steel substrate. To do this, fGO flakes were added to an acrylic cataphoretic bath. Optical and electron microscopy were used to analyze the distribution of the fGO flakes in the polymer matrix. To evaluate the corrosion inhibition capabilities, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy studies and salt spray chamber exposure were done. In addition, the conductivity of the coatings was examined to investigate the barrier function of the flakes. The results showed that the best concentration of fGO was 0.2 wt%, which significantly increased the coating resistance in the harsh environment [12].
Graphene oxide and mesoporous nanoparticles are largely utilised in anti-corrosion coatings. Liu et al. [45] showed that epoxy coatings with nano-fillers and corrosion inhibitors could resist corrosion better. However, corrosion inhibitors can degrade under UV light or react with the coating or the metal, reducing the coating’s lifespan. This study found that a special filler could upscale the anti-corrosion capabilities of coatings for marine applications, such as containers. The filler acts as a physical barrier and prevents UV light from damaging the inhibitor. It also controls the release of the protector according to pH changes during the early stages of corrosion. UV spectrophotometry with the stable encapsulation and regulated release of the inhibitor. Electrochemical-impedance spectroscopy revealed that the smart anti-corrosion epoxy coating had a |Z| 0.01 Hz value almost 10,000 times higher than the pure epoxy coating. Moreover, FT-IR mapping tests indicated that tannic acid released by the initial corrosion in damaged areas can form iron tannins with other corrosion products. This reaction effectively prevents further rusting. This study provides a useful method for developing durable anti-corrosion coatings [45].
Jing et al. proposed that steel structures can be protected from severe damage by using corrosion protection coatings with self-sensing abilities. They developed a polymeric composite material with attached graphene oxide. The graphene oxide was improved with 1, 10-phenanthroline-5-amine (phen), which can form a red complex signal with Fe2+ in the early stages of corrosion. They used waterborne polyurethane (PU) as a green coating matrix and added laponite RD to improve the dispersion of phen-modified GO in the PU matrix. Salt spray testing results indicated that the composite coatings with functionalized GO and laponite RD had better corrosion resistance than pure PU coatings. The composite coatings also changed their color to red before Fe3+ accumulated on the steel plates, indicating the onset of corrosion [88]
3.5 The anti-corrosion performance of the SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin
The anti-corrosion performance of the SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin coating can be evaluated by different methods, such as electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), potentiodynamic polarization (PDP), immersion test and salt spray test (SST), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). These methods can measure the corrosion resistance, corrosion current density, corrosion rate, and surface morphology of the coated metal samples under different environmental conditions.
3.5.1 Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)
This is a powerful analytical technique used to assess the corrosion resistance of various materials, including coatings and composites. In the context of corrosion protection, EIS has proven to be a valuable tool for evaluating the performance of innovative coatings like SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin. This write-up elucidates the principles of EIS and its application as an anti-corrosion test for SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin. EIS is a non-destructive electrochemical measurement technique that provides insights into the corrosion behaviour of materials. It involves applying a small amplitude sinusoidal voltage or current to an electrochemical cell and measuring the resulting impedance response. This response is represented as a Nyquist or Bode plot, which consists of real and imaginary components. The impedance spectra obtained from EIS experiments can be analysed to extract valuable information about the corrosion processes occurring at the material's surface.
SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin represents an advanced coating system designed to protect substrates from corrosion. EIS serves as a critical tool in evaluating its anti-corrosion performance by assessing the following key parameters.
EIS helps verify the integrity of the SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin coating by monitoring the impedance response over time. Any changes in impedance can indicate coating damage or degradation, making it an early warning system for potential corrosion. EIS provides insights into the electrochemical processes occurring at the coating-substrate interface. By analysing the impedance spectra, researchers can deduce information about the rate of corrosion, the resistance to ion diffusion, and the effectiveness of the coating in retarding corrosion reactions. The SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin is expected to act as a barrier to prevent corrosive species from reaching the substrate. EIS can quantify the coating's barrier properties by examining the impedance associated with ion transport through the coating. A higher impedance indicates improved barrier performance. EIS can be used for accelerated corrosion testing, simulating harsh environmental conditions over an extended period. Researchers can assess the SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin's ability to withstand corrosion under such conditions and predict its long-term durability.
3.5.2 Potentiodynamic polarization
This is another widely employed electrochemical technique used for assessing the anti-corrosion properties of materials, particularly coatings like SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin. This concise write-up outlines the principles and application of potentiodynamic polarization as an effective corrosion testing method for SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin. Potentiodynamic polarization involves sweeping the electrode potential of a material within a specified voltage range while monitoring the resulting current response. The technique allows the determination of key electrochemical parameters such as the corrosion potential (Ecorr) and corrosion current density (Icorr), which are indicative of a material's susceptibility to corrosion. SiO2NPs-GO-Acrylic Resin finds application in Potentiodynamic polarization as a valuable tool for evaluating the corrosion resistance of SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin by assessing the following aspects. Corrosion Potential (Ecorr), Ecorr represents the thermodynamic tendency for corrosion to occur. A more noble (positive) Ecorr value indicates a higher resistance to corrosion. When applied to SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin, potentiodynamic polarization can determine whether the coating shifts the Ecorr towards nobility, signifying improved corrosion protection. Corrosion Current Density (Icorr): Icorr quantifies the rate of electrochemical corrosion reactions. Lower Icorr values indicate reduced corrosion rates. Through potentiodynamic polarization, it is possible to measure the Icorr of SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin and compare it with alternative coatings or uncoated substrates to assess its effectiveness in minimizing corrosion. Polarization Resistance (Rp) Rp is the inverse of Icorr and is indicative of a material's resistance to corrosion. High Rp values correspond to increased corrosion resistance. This parameter helps in quantifying the protective efficiency of SiNPs-GO-acrylic resin in inhibiting corrosion.
3.5.3 The salt spray test (SST)
Also referred to as the salt fog test or salt corrosion test, is a widely recognized and standardized method for evaluating the corrosion resistance of materials and coatings, including innovative solutions like SiNPs-GO-acrylic resin. The corrosive effects of a marine environment are simulated by subjecting test specimens to a continuous or intermittent spray of a saltwater solution (typically a 5% sodium chloride solution) under controlled conditions. The test is conducted within a chamber designed to maintain specific temperature, humidity, and pH levels. The SST when applied to SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin for corrosion resistance assessment offers several key advantages. Particularly valuable for accelerated corrosion testing, as years of exposure to harsh marine or salt-laden environments can be simulated within a relatively short timeframe. This allows the long-term durability of SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin under adverse conditions to be assessed. Consistent and controlled exposure to corrosive agents is ensured by the uniform distribution of saltwater spray. This consistency is crucial for evaluating the coating's performance accurately. The SST allows regular visual inspection of test specimens during the test period. The onset of corrosion, the progression of corrosion, and any protective mechanisms employed by SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin, such as barrier or sacrificial protection, can be revealed through this visual monitoring. The performance of SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin in the SST can be compared against established industry standards, providing a clear benchmark for corrosion resistance. This comparison helps manufacturers and researchers gauge how well the material performs in real-world conditions. The SST serves an essential quality control tool during the production of SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin coatings. It ensures that the coatings meet the required corrosion resistance standards before they are applied to substrates.
3.5.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) is a powerful analytical tool widely utilized in materials science and corrosion research. It is employed for the examination of surface morphology, microstructure, and corrosion-related characteristics of materials, including innovative coatings like SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin. In this concise write-up, the principles and applications of SEM as an effective anti-corrosion test for SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin will be explored. SEM involves the utilization of a focused electron beam to scan the surface of a specimen. When high-energy electrons interact with the material, they generate secondary electrons, backscattered electrons, and other signals. These signals are subsequently detected and converted into a highly detailed, high-resolution image of the specimen's surface. SEM provides an abundance of information regarding surface topography, elemental composition, and microstructural characteristics. SEM functions as an invaluable tool for the evaluation of the anti-corrosion properties of SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin by addressing the following aspects.
SEM, allowing researchers to assess its integrity, roughness, and any visible defects, enables detailed examination of the coating’s surface. Surface irregularities, cracks, or delamination can indicate potential vulnerabilities to corrosion. SEM provides information on the microstructure of SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin, revealing the distribution and arrangement of nanoparticles, graphene oxide (GO) sheets, and acrylic components. Understanding the microstructure is essential for optimizing the coating's corrosion resistance. In corrosion studies, SEM can identify and characterize corrosion products that form on the surface of SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin when exposed to corrosive environments. This information aids in understanding corrosion mechanisms and evaluating the effectiveness of the coating in preventing or retarding corrosion. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) coupled with SEM enables elemental mapping, allowing researchers to determine the distribution of elements within the coating. This is particularly useful in tracking the diffusion of corrosive ions and assessing the protective capabilities of SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin. SEM can be utilized for the long-term monitoring of coated specimens exposed to corrosive conditions. Periodic SEM analysis provides insights into the progression of corrosion, facilitating adjustments to the coating's formulation or application as needed.
SEM offers several key advantages for evaluating the corrosion resistance of SiO2NPs-GO-acrylic resin: SEM provides exceptionally high-resolution images, allowing for precise examination of surface features and corrosion-related phenomena. Through advanced techniques such as EDS, SEM enables quantitative analysis of elemental composition, aiding in corrosion product identification. SEM provides visual evidence of corrosion mechanisms, making it an effective tool for communicating research findings and quality control in manufacturing. SEM can be employed in conjunction with other analytical methods, such as electrochemical tests and spectroscopy, to provide a comprehensive assessment of anti-corrosion performance (Table 6).
3.6 Composites for anticorrosion activities
In addition, these composite can be used for anti-corrosion in different dispensation or using different materials such as metals, alloys polymers and other materials.
3.6.1 Metals
Silica nanoparticles functionalized graphene oxide acrylic resins have been tested as anti-corrosion coatings for various metals, including aluminium [41], steel [47], and copper [18]. The coatings have been found to provide good protection against corrosion in various environments, such as salt spray and acidic solutions.
According to the report by Yu et al. [87] (Zhang et al. [90]) hybrid sheets composed of graphene oxide and alumina were manufactured utilising graphene oxide as a starting material and 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane to secure alumina onto the graphene oxide sheets. The structure of the hybrids can be analyzed using FT-IR, XPS, XRD, SEM, and TEM. Composite epoxy coatings containing equal amounts of graphene oxide, alumina, and the graphene oxide-alumina hybrids were prepared. The graphene oxide-alumina hybrids showed not only a uniform spreading and compatibility within the epoxy resin, but also a clear superiority in improving the anti-corrosion performance of the epoxy coatings. Additionally, possible anti-corrosive mechanisms of the graphene oxide-alumina/epoxy coatings were briefly examined [89].
3.6.2 Alloys
The anti-corrosion display of silica nanoparticles functionalized graphene oxide acrylic resins has also been studied on alloys, such as aluminium alloy and stainless Steel [18]. Results show that the coatings can effectively protect the alloys against corrosion, even in harsh environments, different reports on the actions of different coatings on steels and alloys have been reported. Yang et al. [85] reported a composite coating of water hating silane and graphene oxide (GO) coupled with BTAH protector was successfully crafted on copper surface. The results from various characterization techniques (ATR-FTIR, Raman, EDS, XPS and EIS) showed that GO was covalently bonded with silanol groups and BTAH inhibitor was generally added in the coating. The coated copper showed high impedance modulus (5.7 MΩ cm2) and high protection efficiency (99.97%) against corrosion. The corrosion current density of the coated copper was minimised by over three orders of magnitude compared to just copper in 1 M neutral NaCl solution and remained over 99% even after 120 h of immersion. The BTAH inhibitor also demonstrated self-healing performance in 1 M neutral NaCl solution [47].
Ramezanzadeh et al. [68] presents two straightforward methods for synthesizing and characterizing silica nanoparticle graphene oxide (SiO2-GO) nanohybrids. The nanohybrids were produced through an in-situ sol–gel process utilizing an addition of 3-Aminopropyl triethoxysilane and Tetraethylorthosilicate in a alcohol-water solution. To evaluate the SiO2-GO nanohybrids, techniques such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), and atomic force microscopy (AFM) were used. Results of these analyses demonstrated that fine SiO2 nanoparticles, with a size of less than 20 nm, coated the surface of GO sheets. Additionally, X-ray diffraction and FE-SEM analysis showed that the SiO2-GO nanohybrids had a better dispersion in the epoxy coating compared to pure GO. To examine the impact of SiO2-GO nanohybrids on the corrosion protection and barrier properties of the epoxy coating, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was utilized. The findings indicated that the SiO2-GO nanohybrids significantly improved the barrier and corrosion protection qualities of the epoxy coating, as well as reducing the cathodic delamination rate of the epoxy coating [68].
3.6.3 Polymers
Silica nanoparticles functionalized graphene oxide acrylic resins have also been investigated as anti-corrosion coatings for polymers, such as polycarbonate. The coatings have been discovered to enhance the corrosion inhibition of the polymers, making them suitable for use in harsh environments. Li et al. [40] article discusses the development of a self-sensing polymer composite material with functionalized graphene oxide as a means of preventing catastrophic failure of steel structures due to corrosion. The coating contains chemically modified graphene oxide (GO) and waterborne polyurethane (PU) as the matrix, and the addition of laponite RD is used to promote the spread of the changed GO in the PU matrix. The composite show higher corrosion inhibition than pure PU coatings, as determined by salt spray testing. Red colour change of composite coatings before accumulation of Fe3+ on the steel plates is observed as a signal of the beginning of corrosion reaction, providing early scare sign of potential corrosion damage [40].
3.7 Challenges on green approach to synthesize silica nanoparticle-graphene oxide acrylic resin for anti-corrosion purposes
The development of eco-friendly materials for anti-corrosion applications has garnered significant attention in recent years, driven by growing environmental concerns and the imperative for sustainable solutions. A particularly promising avenue in this pursuit is the synthesis of Silica Nanoparticle-Graphene Oxide (SiO2NPs-GO) acrylic resin composites, which not only offer enhanced corrosion protection but also aim to minimize their environmental impact. Nonetheless, realizing the full potential of this green approach requires the resolution of several formidable challenges.
One of the foremost challenges confronting the synthesis of SiO2NPs-GO acrylic resin composites is material compatibility. The amalgamation of SiO2NPs-GO nanoparticles with acrylic resin presents a formidable compatibility obstacle. Achieving a uniform dispersion of nanoparticles within the resin matrix is indispensable for effective corrosion protection. Incompatibility issues can result in agglomeration, significantly diminishing the composite's performance and overall coating quality.
Additionally, scalability poses a substantial hurdle in the journey towards eco-friendly anti-corrosion solutions. Expanding the synthesis process while adhering to environmentally conscious principles proves to be intricate. Traditional methods may rely on toxic solvents and energy-intensive processes, thereby negating the eco-friendliness of the approach. Consequently, the development of large-scale, sustainable synthesis methods for SiO2NPs-GO acrylic resin composites becomes imperative.
The cost-effectiveness of SiO2NPs-GO acrylic resin composites is another considerable challenge. Green materials often encounter cost-related impediments. The production of SiO2NPs-GO composites may involve expensive precursors or energy-intensive reduction processes for graphene oxide. Balancing cost-effectiveness with environmental friendliness is a formidable task. Long-term stability constitutes yet another formidable obstacle. Corrosion protection materials must endure harsh environmental conditions, including temperature fluctuations, humidity, and exposure to corrosive agents, over extended periods. Ensuring the long-term stability and durability of SiO2NPs-GO acrylic resin composites is a pivotal challenge.
Moreover, toxicity and safety concerns pose significant challenges, emphasizing the necessity for toxicity-free and safety-certified materials. Green approaches must prioritize human and environmental safety throughout the entire lifecycle of the material, ensuring that the synthesis and application of SiO2NPs-GO acrylic resin composites do not involve toxic by-products or materials harmful to humans or ecosystems, to gauge the effectiveness of SiO2NPs-GO acrylic resin composites, it is imperative to establish standardized testing methods and performance criteria. Currently, the lack of universally accepted testing protocols for these materials hinders the ability to compare results across studies. Navigating the regulatory landscape for green materials can be intricate, requiring compliance with environmental standards and certifications while meeting industry-specific requirements. Crucially, reducing the carbon footprint is a central aspect of green approaches. Synthesizing SiO2NPs-GO acrylic resin composites should encompass the entire lifecycle, from raw material extraction to disposal. Minimizing energy consumption and emissions throughout this process is challenging but imperative.
Finally, application variability is yet another facet of the challenges faced in this endeavor. Different anti-corrosion applications necessitate tailored material properties. SiO2NPs-GO acrylic resin composites must exhibit the versatility to adapt to various environments, substrates, and corrosion types without compromising their eco-friendly credentials, presenting a formidable challenge.
3.8 Conclusion
In conclusion, silica nanoparticles functionalized graphene oxide acrylic resins have shown great potential as anti-corrosion coatings for various metallic, alloy and polymers surfaces. Synthesis, characterization, and anti-corrosion improvement of these materials have been extensively studied in recent years, showing that the properties of the material can be enhanced by controlling the synthesis conditions, like the type and ratio of acrylic monomers, the concentration of graphene oxide, and the size and surface charge of the silica nanoparticles. These materials have shown good anti-corrosion performance compared to traditional acrylic coatings and other advanced anti-corrosion coatings. However, further studies is needed to fully understand the mechanism of anti-corrosion action and to develop practical, large-scale applications.
3.9 Future research directions
A possible direction for future research on silica nanoparticles functionalized graphene oxide acrylic resins is to develop more efficient and cost-effective synthesis methods. Moreover, the mechanism of anti-corrosion action of these materials needs to be elucidated and the synthesis conditions need to be optimized for specific applications. Another promising area of research is to enhance the self-healing properties of these coatings by incorporating microcapsules containing corrosion inhibitors. This would improve the durability of the coatings and reduce the need for frequent maintenance. Furthermore, the long-term durability of these coatings under real-world conditions, such as exposure to UV radiation and temperature changes, should be evaluated. This information is essential for the development of practical, large-scale applications of these materials as anti-corrosion coatings. Silica nanoparticles functionalized graphene oxide acrylic resins have demonstrated great potential as anti-corrosion coatings and further studies in this area are expected to result in significant improvement in the protection of metallic, alloy and polymer surfaces against corrosion.
Data availability
The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this review are available within the article and its supplementary materials.
Code availability
Not applicable.
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Hassan, I., Baba, N.M., Benin, M.E. et al. Review on green synthesis of silica nanoparticle functionalized graphene oxide acrylic resin for anti-corrosion applications. J.Umm Al-Qura Univ. Appll. Sci. 10, 379–397 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43994-023-00106-w
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43994-023-00106-w