Introduction

The persistent nature of cigarette butts in natural environments and their contribution to micro plastic pollution deserve more research attention due to their impacts on ecosystems and biota [1, 2]. Cigarette butts are the most prevalent litter type worldwide, with the highest density as reported by Moriwaki [3]: 130 cigarette butts /m2 in some cities, 150 cigarette butts /km of suburban road, 1600 cigarette butts /100 m on beaches. It is estimated that an average of 766,571 metric tons of cigarette butts are generated annually [4]. Although extensive programs and campaigns have been implemented to stop the improper disposal of cigarette butts, it remains a major problem in many parts of the world.

Considering that cigarette butts are the most prevalent type of litter in the world, it is not surprising that many studies have been conducted to uncover the causes of improper disposal. However, few studies provide valuable results in reducing corresponding pollution [4]. Habits, convenience, lack of ashtrays and trash cans, accidental discarding of cigarettes due to their small size, and the misconception that cigarette butts are biodegradable are just a few of the causes associated with this behaviour [5, 6].

However, waste-related issues are a typical occurrence in urban settings. Cigarette waste is a significant portion of urban waste [7]. According to Healton [8] cigarette butts account for 25–50 percent of all litter recovered from streets and roadways. Nevertheless, in several countries (such as the Netherlands, Austria, Belgium), cigarette butts rank the third among all the improperly disposed litter although they represent only 2% by volume [9].

It is estimated that more litter will be discarded in streets and other public spaces where intensive human activities concentrate, such as in urban centres [10, 11]. Population growth, urbanization, and tourism will continuously influence European towns, meaning that these towns must deal with more waste [12, 13]. Such waste will remain in the streets and public areas until it is either picked up by the local government or delivered into the local drainage system by winds or runoff [11, 14, 15]. Consequently, inappropriate treatment of such waste will lead to aesthetically unappealing and pose threat to wildlife and humans [16, 17]. Moreover, marine species may be harmed by such litter through the sewage system due to entanglement and ingestion of plastic waste [18,19,20].

The European Union's Plastic Environmental Impact Reduction Directive (2019/904) [21], commonly referred to as the Single-Use Plastics Directive, aims to reduce the environmental impact of plastics and promote the transition to a circular economy. This directive includes several legislative measures, such as an EU-wide ban on single-use plastic products when viable alternatives are available. Filters for tobacco products and filters marketed for use in conjunction with tobacco products containing plastic are attached to this directive. In this frame, Romania shows a tobacco consumption very close to the average value of the European Union [22]. However, there are no annually updated national data in this country in terms of the amount of cigarette butts or the causes of this phenomenon, resulting in that it is difficult to measure the environmental impact of this type of waste. Therefore, this present study is an opportunity for:

  • filling such research gaps by identifying the behaviours and motivations of smokers on how they discard cigarettes after consumption;

  • quantifying the amount of cigarette butts that Romanian consumer generate;

  • presenting an approach replicable in other contexts showing the same information gaps.

Previous relevant studies investigate the cigarette butts littering in outdoor public spaces through field measurements [23, 24], in-person interviews [25] or surveys [4]. The results of these studies identified the types of places that may be hotspots for outdoor littering of cigarette butts, such as beaches [26], parks [27], public transportation stops [11, 24], or designated locations in hospitals [28].

Nonetheless, these studies provide limited information on these locations and ignored the extent of exposure in larger geographic areas. Two reports used a geographic information system (GIS) to address this research gap [29, 30]. GIS is a useful spatial tool that helps identify the spatial distribution of any given problem or event [31, 32], which allows for customization/expansion of functionality according to the specifics of the application. Typically, the functions provided through GIS can facilitate vector analysis, raster analysis, automatic mapping, image processing, database management, etc. These geographic data are composed of a set of geometric data (coordinates) and descriptive data (attributes) associated with geographic objects/phenomena (land, rivers, streets, industrial targets, costs, etc.). Our research makes use of an innovative methodology that blends extensive survey analysis, geographic information systems (GIS), and methodical social observation. The integrated method described in Chapter 2 enables a precise measurement and geographical mapping of cigarette butt pollution in Romania. By combining these approaches, we provide a comprehensive picture that prior research has not been able to provide, one that contextualizes the activities that contribute to littering as well as measures its amount. The actual results of our multidisciplinary investigation are presented in Chapter 3, which offers a thorough description of the density of cigarette butts in various public areas as well as the disposal practices related to them. This chapter emphasizes the important role that our research has played in identifying crucial areas where cigarette butt litter accumulates, as well as the sociodemographic elements that affect littering behaviour but have received little attention in the literature to far. Chapters 4 and 5, where we address the implications of our findings for policy, practice, and future study, best capture the uniqueness of our work. We put forth evidence-based suggestions for reducing pollution from cigarette butts and promote the incorporation of circular economy ideas into waste management procedures. This research contributes to our understanding of the environmental effects of tobacco product waste and provides guidance for future targeted treatments and policy interventions aimed at lowering this pollution.

Methods and data

Questionnaire development and survey

We developed a questionnaire based on previous relevant studies by targeting the following aspects:

1) the amount of cigarette butts in different locations;

2) self-reported behaviours regarding improper disposal of cigarette butts;

3) satisfaction with places specifically designed for smoking;

4) understanding of environmental impact associated with cigarette butts;

5) personal responsibility related with cigarette littering.

The questionnaire was distributed online via a dedicated platform for conducting surveys. Regarding the selection of respondents, each qualified respondent should meet with the following three criteria:

1) an adult (over 19 years old);

2) an active smoker;

3) a legal resident in Romania.

A total of 2046 questionnaires were completed. Of the 2046 responses received, 199 incomplete responses were identified after careful screening. These were removed to make sure that only valid questionnaires are used for further analysis. We then apply the mandatory exclusion criteria to the remaining questionnaires and eventually received 1643 valid samples.

These samples had the following sociodemographic distributions:

  • male 52%, female 48%;

  • 20–30 years 7%, 31–40 years 37%, 41–50 years 38.9%, 51–60 years 17%, 60 + 0.1%;

  • primary education 18.9%, secondary education 18.5%, high school education 19.4%, university education 22.3%, postgraduate education 20.9%.

This questionnaire survey was conducted in 7 types of places to ensure a national coverage: large cities -over 200,000 inhabitants, medium-sized cities -50,000–200,000 inhabitants, small cities- under 50,000 inhabitants, rural areas over 5,000 inhabitants, rural areas under 5,000 inhabitants, and tourist areas, to cover all the eight development regions at the national level. In the first phase, we collected data on the presence of cigarette butts and filters of heated tobacco products discarded in outdoor public areas through systematic social observation in a sample of 474 census tracts in urban and rural areas.

We devised a two-step procedure for reviewing census samples to ensure the extent of socioeconomic conditions in both urban and rural areas. In the first stage, we chose seven large cities with seven areas of interest (N = 14, total 98 locations), seven medium-sized cities with seven areas of interest (N = 14, total 95 locations), eight small cities with seven areas of interest (n = 14, 90 locations total), and eight large communities with seven areas of interest (N = 7, 9 locations total), eight small municipalities with seven areas of interest (N = 7, 9 locations total), and eight tourist areas with seven areas of interest (N = 7, 9 locations total) and the capital with 14 areas of interest (n = 24, 164 locations in total). The capital was an exception due to its urban agglomeration, so 14 areas of interest were defined here.

The areas were chosen at random (Fig. 1), with the G Business Extractor application extracting from the seven initial locations and seven reserve locations in case the initially defined point was not found during the field observation period. For each location, 4 to 5 images were taken, each of which recorded the number of cigarette butts appearing at the time the operator was on site. Within each location, seven areas of interest were identified and divided into seven targets, as follows:

Fig. 1
figure 1

Types of locations included in this observational study

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Determination of cigarette butts disposed in public places

We collected data on all cigarette butts and filters of heated tobacco products thrown in the 476 census areas using systematic social observation. In November 2021, a team of observers trained for one week conducted fieldwork. They worked between 12 p.m. and 5 p.m from Monday to Friday. The selection of this time was based upon previous studies since they found that smoking visibility and intensity are higher during this time period [32, 33]. We also used GPS MAPS CAMERA to take photos.

We used an existing audit questionnaire tool that helps collect information on the presence of cigarette butts and filters (yes/no), date, address, time of recording, and type of public space. We integrated the audit questionnaire into a smartphone using eSurveysPro.com and Google Forms platforms to geocode the data.

In addition, we collected geographic contextual data for the analysis of cartographic outputs. We gathered information on administrative boundaries (cities, towns, and census boundaries). We also collected the position data (coordinates and address) of all public locations and facilities in the neighbourhood of the 47 areas where data were available, as well as the public areas (appropriate for pedestrians). We recorded places of hospitality (bars, restaurants, cafes, and pubs), public transportation stops (considering bus, subway, and train), health and education centres, supermarkets and groceries, playgrounds, and more. public buildings (such as post offices, governmental buildings), retail stores or other service areas, parks, restrooms, etc. We extracted census data from all GOOGLE search engine results for each location.

Data extrapolation at national level

We mapped all types of locations where we observed cigarette butts and heated tobacco product filters in the field and conducted a core density estimate (EDN) analysis to estimate the geographic distribution of cigarette butts and heated tobacco product filters at the national level. EDN is a geographic measure that can be used to calculate the density of features in a given area (for example, a neighbourhood). Based on their locations and distances from their neighbours, EDN generates a smooth grid surface of the density of specific spatial events (in this study, the selected types of places). In these calculations, the value of density was assumed to be higher at the location of the event and to decrease as a specific function of distance as we move away to a given search radius [34].

We defined a grid of 5 × 5 m and weighted the density values by the observed probability of finding cigarette butts and filters from heated tobacco products in each public space (i.e., the percentages determined in phase 2). We used a search radius of 25 m around each public space. This density value can be interpreted as an approximation of the extent of exposure to cigarette butts. The search radius is defined as the area around each public place where associated smokers might discard cigarette butts and filters of heated tobacco products. Thus, if we consider a hospitality venue as a place where we might find cigarette butts, we assumed that the estimated density or exposure to cigarette butts would be higher at the entrance of the building and then gradually decrease with distance. The density values were normalized using the following equation [1]:

$${X}^{\mathrm{^{\prime}}}=\frac{X-{X}_{min}}{{X}_{max}-{X}_{min}}\times 100$$
(1)

When X' is the new standardized pixel value, X is the old pixel value, and Xmin and Xmax are the smallest and largest pixel values in the map expansion, respectively. We used the Natural Breaks method to classify each pixel in the city into 4 categories: Zero, Moderate, High, and Extreme [35]. Areas that are not considered public spaces according to the classification of public land use and undeveloped areas (e.g., rural areas and non-residential areas) were excluded from the analysis. Finally, we used GIS to calculate the total area affected by cigarette butts and heated tobacco product filters. We calculated the population living in areas impacted by cigarette butts and heated tobacco product filters. In brief, we obtained census data from the OpenStreetMap database, and then used the QuickOSM plugin to run queries to extract points of interest. The population data were then transferred from census zones to residential buildings and weighted according to the number of floors in each building. The proportion of the population estimated to live in residential buildings in areas with exposure to cigarette butts and filters from heated tobacco products was then added. All analyses were carried out using the ArcGIS v.10.4 software and the methodology is depicted in Fig. 2 below [36].

Fig. 2
figure 2

Stages of the GIS methodological approach

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Results

Survey results

The data in Table 1 represent the number of self-reported cigarettes smoked on a typical day depending on where they are. As shown in this table, there is a significant difference between the number of cigarettes smoked daily at home and those smoked in public places. The percentages were calculated with reference to the average cigarette consumption recorded at the samples.

Table 1 Consumed cigarettes depending on the type of location
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Because the places where cigarettes are smoked other than at home are useful in determining patterns of use and discarding of cigarette butts, this table details the number of cigarettes smoked in public places. Most cigarettes were consumed in parking lots (8.11%), the fewest when leaving the subway (0.4%). But we must keep in mind that only residents of Bucharest benefit from this type of transportation at the national level.

Concerning the self-reported improper disposal, 17% of the respondents disposed their cigarette butts on the floor, and 8.4% of the respondents admitted to disposing at least one cigarette butt from the car directly on the ground (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3
figure 3

Frequency of improper disposal of cigarette butts on the ground

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Moreover, Table 2 lists the detailed situations by age categories along with self-reported reasons for littering.

Table 2 Self-Reported reasons for littering depending on age
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Another aspect to consider when studying this kind of behaviour is the consumer habit of searching for trash cans or public ashtrays. Respondents were asked to report how often, when in a public space, they look for public baskets or ashtrays to throw away their cigarette butts. The percentages are listed in Table 3.

Table 3 Frequency of searching for ashtrays / trash cans for cigarette disposal
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Figure 4 shows the degree of satisfaction with these facilities. 53.4% of the respondents expressed their opinions somewhere in the middle, declaring themselves neither satisfied nor dissatisfied.

Fig. 4
figure 4

Respondents’ satisfaction with smoking places

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Also, we measured the understanding of the environmental impact associated with cigarette butts among the respondents. Cigarette butts that are not biodegradable often confuse the smokers. 31.3% of the respondents believe that cigarette butts are biodegradable, 33.7% said they did not know, while only 35% of the respondents said the statement was certainly false. Table 4 lists the statements of respondents for their understanding of the environmental impacts associated with cigarette butts.

Table 4 Respondents' understanding of the environmental impact associated with cigarette butts
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The last investigated aspect was the perceived responsibility related with cigarette littering. Among the four entities perceived to be responsible for cigarette littering, no significate statistical difference could be identified between the percentages attributed by the respondents. As the distribution of responsibility is rather homogeneous, it is concluded that the responsibility for this phenomenon is shared between smokers, cigarette manufacturers, local authorities, and the government (Table 5).

Table 5 Perceived responsibilities for pollution associated with cigarette butts
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Descriptive analysis with the application of GIS

Cigarette butts were found in 476 public places, each place with a maximum of 5 images uploaded. These cigarette butts and filters of heated tobacco products were found most frequently near the entrances of stores (22.27%), at HoReCa restaurants (16.81%), or waiting areas for parents in front of schools (17.02%), at stations for public transportation (8.61%), or waiting areas for patients or patients waiting for examinations or consultations near health and medical facilities (12.61%), the rest were found at paved / asphalt mineral public spaces (11.55%) and resting places located in green spaces—parks, playgrounds, public gardens (11.13%). All percentages are presented in detail in Table 6.

Table 6 Outdoor public places with the presence of cigarette butts and filters of heated tobacco products collected in 47 census areas in Romania
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EDN analysis results

Because the EDN analyses were based on specific addresses, we were unable to include observations in place categories not covered by the OpenStreetMap secondary databases. Furthermore, while we geocoded data from streets and parks, the extrapolation of data from these places is debatable. The city's street (e.g., sidewalk width) and park (e.g., lot surface area and landscaping) characteristics are particularly diverse. These factors may be more important than the number or density of public areas in terms of the prevalence of cigarette butts and heated tobacco product filters [30]. Instead, we included playground and parks in our study because all these urban amenities have similar characteristics and dimensions, as defined by OpenStreetMap. In total, we identified 104,120 locations, including 16,730 hospitality places, 5,860 transport stations, 2,159 schools, 14,998 supermarkets, markets, and grocery stores, 1,935 playgrounds and 62,438 banks (Fig. 5). There are more restaurants and supermarkets in the central areas of the city, while there are more parks and markets in the outlying areas. Public transport stations and schools are more evenly distributed.

Fig. 5
figure 5

Distributions of locations by large, medium and small cities in terms of the cigarette butts per person

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We found that central Bucharest has the highest values of cigarette butts and filters for heated tobacco products exposure, where the density of hospitality places, public transportation stops, and commercial places (i.e., supermarkets, markets, and grocery stores) is highest in the city. Extreme and high exposure levels were also found in other urban centres (Brașov, Oradea, Galați, Timișoara, and Ploiești), where there are more restaurants, public transport stations, business places, and the waiting places for parents at the entrance of educational institutions.

In addition, we observed a geographical difference in the distribution of the density of cigarette butts. Southern areas of cities appeared to have higher levels of cigarette butt density than those in the north, as we observed higher densities of restaurants, public transportation stations, and places of business. This inset showed all the public spaces considered in our analysis as places with a high probability of cigarette butts, as well as the distribution of this phenomenon by area.

Validation of GIS results

We performed a validation procedure to verify the validity of our estimates. Specifically, we used ArcGIS 10.4 to identify 10 random addresses within each category of exposure areas for cigarette butts and heated tobacco product filters- zero, moderate, high, and extreme (Fig. 4). We excluded areas covered by the 474 census tracts used for monitoring. In total, we visited 10 random points. A similar procedure for establishing validation points has been used in previous studies [29, 30]. At each point, we performed the same measurement procedure as in step 2. To obtain these measurements, we visited each point and collected data on the number of cigarette butts within a 1 m radius (pixel size in the GIS analysis) and within 3 and 5 m radii for the sensitivity analyses. On-site measurements were collected by the same data collector as in Phase 1 between July and September 2018, from Monday to Thursday, and between 12 and 5 pm in each day. We used a correlation coefficient to compare observed and estimated cigarette butt exposure levels [37]. All statistical analyses were performed using Stata v.12. software [38].

We found a high correlation between observed and estimated values within 1 m of each validation site (r = 0.784). The coefficients were slightly lower in the sensitivity analyses within 5 m of each site, showing moderate correlation (r = 0.543 and r = 0.632, respectively). The points with different estimated values were mainly classified into the groups with zero or extreme estimated exposure (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6
figure 6

Locations with more cigarette butts and filters for heated tobacco products

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Discussion

A large amount of cigarette butts and heated tobacco product filters were discovered around hospitals, public transportation stops, schools, supermarkets, market entrances and grocery stores, playgrounds, and nearby banks in our study. Previous studies [39,40,41] also identified these types of areas as hotspots for dumping cigarette butts and filters of heated tobacco products. According to Marah and Novotny [29], some of these sites are related with tobacco sales and consumption, such as places of hospitality. Others may be linked to the consequences of indoor smoking prohibitions, where smokers must move to public transportation terminals or supermarkets [42,43,44].

According to the data obtained with this survey approach, 46% of all cigarettes consumed in a day are consumed in public places, while 54% are consumed in private places (Fig. 7). A total of 56.61% of cigarettes consumed in public areas are thrown away (on the sidewalk), while 45% are thrown in specifically designated public places (with public ashtrays, trash cans, garbage cans).

Fig. 7
figure 7

Cigarettes smoked in public and private spaces and final disposal methods

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Furthermore, we discovered a large amount of cigarette butts and heated tobacco product filters in areas where smoking is prohibited by Romanian law [45]. In Romania, the distribution of cigarette butts and heated tobacco product filters is not uniform. The most cigarette butts and filters of heated tobacco products were found in those cities with the highest density of hospitality establishments, public transportation stops, supermarkets, and educational centres. The density of hospitality establishments, public transportation terminals, and business establishments was higher in southern Romanian cities. This finding demonstrated that the distribution of cigarette butts and filters of heated tobacco products is closely related with public spaces where smokers often stay.

These areas have the largest population density in Romania and offer a wide range of recreational, commercial, business, and tourism activities. During the validation procedure, discrepancies between estimated and field-measured values in areas with negligible exposure were discovered, indicating the widespread presence of discarded cigarette butts and filters of heated tobacco products. The differences in areas with high exposure could be due to the frequency of street cleaning, which is particularly high in the urban centres with a high density of recreational, commercial, and tourism activities [46,47,48].

In terms of methodology, past studies that have measured cigarette butt pollution levels relied on one-of-a-kind observational approaches that are limited to a small number of sites or streets and are unsuitable for collecting wide areas [23]. Apart from these one-of-a-kind observation approaches, the application of GIS tool enables us to obtain spatial data on the presence of cigarette butts and filters of heated tobacco products. As a result, we can extrapolate the observed data to a random sample of sites throughout a vast geographic area.

Marah and Novotny [29] used a weighted overlay model to predict regions where high concentrations of debris/trash would be deposited near their study area in 2011. Data from a tobacco product waste survey conducted at a few areas with potentially significant concentrations of these waste forms backed up this hypothesis. Their study concluded that the outdoor spaces surrounding these locations had considerable accumulations of tobacco waste and classified them into ten degrees of exposure based on straight line smears that decrease in distance from these spots [29]. Instead of measuring buffer proximity, we conducted extensive fieldwork to define the types of locations with high concentrations of cigarette butts and filters of heated tobacco products, and we used estimates of edible tobacco nuclei density (EDN) instead.

Therefore, particularly in large cities, waste management related to cigarette butts is a major concern, as their environmental resilience of and high expense of collection are key obstacles in finding an efficient matter for them [49, 50]. The findings illustrate the pervasive problem of cigarette butt litter, emphasizing not just its effects on the environment but also the public's attitudes and behaviours related to it. A number of important factors, including public education and awareness, circular economy solutions, governmental and regulatory measures, and stakeholder engagement, must be taken into account in order to move these findings toward sustainability and the circular economy. In terms of public education and awareness, the facts on attitudes toward littering point to the urgent need for more efforts in these areas.

These campaigns ought to encourage sustainable disposal methods in addition to highlighting the negative effects of cigarette butt litter on the ecosystem. By educating people on the harmful properties and non-biodegradability of cigarette butts, we can encourage a change in mindset toward more conscientious disposal of waste. Cigarette butt waste can be managed by applying circular economy principles, which include eliminating waste and pollution, reusing resources and products, and renewing natural systems. Innovations that reduce environmental impact and promote sustainability, such recycling cigarette butts into plastic pallets, building materials, or even textiles, offer chances to reintegrate trash back into the economy.

The study's conclusions can also guide legislative and regulatory actions intended to lessen pollution from cigarette butts. This can entail putting in place extended producer responsibility (EPR) programs, that comply also with the 2024 EU “Ecodesign Directive for Sustainable Products” [51], which hold tobacco corporations responsible for the effects of their products after the end of their useful lives. In order to promote adherence to sustainable waste management methods, policies should also require the provision of suitable disposal facilities in public areas and impose fines for inappropriate disposal. It will be crucial to involve a wide range of stakeholders in the development and implementation of effective solutions, including governmental agencies, environmental groups, tobacco businesses, and the general people. Innovative solutions that support the circular economy's tenets as well as environmental objectives might result from cooperative efforts. Considering all these negative effects, the disposal of cigarette waste in open public locations must be tackled as a regulatory issue as proposed by Barnes [52]. For example, The Single-Use Plastic Directive introduced by the European Union applies to cigarettes with plastic filters and mandates that Member States establish extended producer responsibility schemes to ensure that manufacturers of tobacco products with plastic filters cover the costs of public education, litter clean-up, data collection and reporting, and waste collection for products discarded in public collection systems. As a result, the laws governing extended producer responsibility for tobacco products with plastic filters, as well as other single-use plastic items, are tailored to the unique characteristics of these products [21].

Conclusions

In this study, presented with details that allow its replicability, we employed a systematic social observation along with GIS and a survey approach to quantify the density of cigarette butts located in public premises and investigate the motivations for such behaviours. A total of 184.72 km2 of public outdoor spaces (of which 48.47%, 89.53 km2, was described as having at least moderate exposure to cigarette butts) and 1643 questionnaires were analysed. We found that about 3,962,091 inhabitants out of a total of 4,559,467 inhabitants, i.e. about 19.69% of the Romanian population, were affected by this form of litter. The summary is presented in Fig. 8 below. By aggregating and weighting the data obtained, we can conclude that 26% of the total cigarettes sold are disposed of improperly, which corresponds to an amount of 6,498,300,000 cigarette butts annually, reported to the quantity of cigarettes released for consumption in 2021, according to the European Commission [53].

Fig. 8
figure 8

Annual amounts of inappropriate discarded cigarette butts in public places in Romania

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Similar results have been obtained in Scotland and Spain, where a recent study estimated that 75% of streets in Scottish cities have smoke-related litter [29, 54].

Regarding the reasons that motivates such behaviours among consumers, the survey approach we have taken provides interesting motives. In terms of behaviours, there are diversified reasons self-reported by respondents. Typical answers include "Because I think it is right," "Because I was in a hurry," or "Because other smokers throw them on the ground as well". These answers, together with less knowledge about the characteristics of the cigarette butts' characteristics (31.3% of respondents believed that these cigarette butts were biodegradable, or 33.7% said they knew nothing about this aspect), can partly explain these inappropriate behaviours.

These numbers echo the results in several relevant studies, namely trillions of cigarette butts contribute to environmental contamination [54, 55]. Prevention, proper disposal, or clean-up of tobacco product waste come at a great cost to society, therefore early intervention is essential as it would take less time and resources than avoiding exposures in the first place. In the long term, we believe that is crucial to pursue research on this topic, as additional data can inform the best measures to reduce exposures and the related health outcomes of cigarette waste product.

To address the negative effects of tobacco product waste on the environment, a multifaceted strategy including creative recycling and reuse techniques, efficient disposal plans, strong legal frameworks, and public awareness campaigns is needed. It is possible to lessen the harm that cigarette butts cause to the environment and advance toward a more sustainable future by approaching this problem from a variety of perspectives.

Several businesses and groups have started projects to recycle cigarette butts into different items in relation to the recycle, reuse, and disposal methods. In order to separate the organic from the plastic components, the collected butts are cleaned and processed. While the cellulose acetate filters are recycled into plastic items like ashtrays, pallets, and even cloth, the organic material can be composted. The search for creative ways to repurpose cigarette butts is still ongoing. Studies have looked into ways to use cigarette butts in the construction business, like adding them to bricks for their insulating qualities or utilizing them to make steel coating materials that are resistant to corrosion. In relation to the public disposal programs, the establishment of cigarette butt disposal containers in public spaces can aid in the more efficient management of this waste stream. Campaigns to raise public awareness must be combined with these programs to promote appropriate disposal. Additionally, by enacting extended producer responsibility (EPR), these regulations force tobacco corporations to be accountable for the full product lifecycle, including trash generated after consumption and comply also with the 2024 EU “Ecodesign Directive for Sustainable Products” [51]. This may encourage businesses to fund waste collecting programs and look into the creation of substitute biodegradable filters. Governments can play a significant role, for example, by passing laws that forbid smoking in specific public places, punish people for leaving cigarette butts lying around, and require ash receptacles to be placed in specified smoking locations.

Authors' information

Elena Simona Lakatos: Institute for Research in Circular Economy and Environment “Ernest Lupan” & Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Industrial Engineering, Robotics and Production Management.

Lucian Ionel Cioca:Faculty of Engineering, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu

Yong Geng: School of International and Public Affairs, & School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University.

Elena Cristina Rada: Theoretical and Applied Science Department, Insubria University.