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Current and Future Perspective of Microalgae for Simultaneous Wastewater Treatment and Feedstock for Biofuels Production

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Abstract

The depletion of renewable source of energy and wastewater treatment are one of the concerning issues for the growing population. To overcome these problems, algae can be acts as one of the potent sources for biofuels feedstocks as well as biosorbents for wastewater treatment. The cultivation of microalgae leads to the removal of nutrients, heavy metals, dyes, and pharmaceutical waste from wastewater. Extracted lipids from microalgae are utilized for biodiesel production and lipid extracted microalgae can act as feedstocks for the production of bioethanol, biobutanol, and biogas. Biochar formed from microalgae can act as biosorbents. Several factors like temperature, the intensity of light, CO2, nutrient concentration, and inoculum size affect the cultivation of microalgae. Dynamic models are proposed for algal growth kinetics in raceway ponds and photobioreactors. Similarly, biomass concentration, initial pH, contact time, temperature, initial metal and dyes concentration, etc. affect the biosorption process. Biosorption isotherm kinetics are employed for heavy metals and dyes removal from wastewater. Energy sustainability of microalgal biodiesel production is evaluated by the life cycle energy balance equation, circular economy, and life cycle assessment (LCA) analysis.

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Abbreviations

FTIR:

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy

SEM:

Scanning electron microscopy

EDX:

Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

XPS:

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy

XRD:

X-ray powder diffractometer

XAS:

X-ray absorption spectroscopy

AAS:

Atomic absorption spectrophotometry

SAA:

Surface area analyzer

TGA:

Thermogravimetric analyzer

ICP-AES:

Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy

ICP-AES:

Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry

ICP-MS:

Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

TG:

Triglyceride

MG:

Monoglyceride

DG:

Diglyceride

Gly:

Glycerol

ME:

Methyl ester

MeOH:

Methanol

TMP:

Trans-membrane pressure (bar)

EER:

Energy efficiency ratio

LCA:

Life cycle assessment

HTC:

Hydrothermal carbonization

RCF:

Relative centrifugal force

FAME:

Fatty acid methyl ester

μ:

Specific growth rate (h−1)

\(X_{1}\) :

Dry weight concentration (g L−1) at a time \(t_{1}\)

\(X_{2}\) :

Dry weight concentration (g L−1) at a time t2

\(I_{0}\) :

Incident photon flux density (PFD) (μ mole m−2 s−1)

\(I\) :

Transmitted light over the layer thickness (μ mole m−2 s−1)

cx :

Concentration of cell dry weight (g L−1)

ɛ:

Specific extinction co-efficient (L g−1 cm−1)

l:

Layer thickness at a random point (cm)

NCO2 :

Carbon dioxide mass transfer rate (g CO2 m−3 h−1)

Cco2 :

Dissolved carbon dioxide concentration in liquid phase

\(C_{{CO_{2} }}^{*}\) :

Dissolved carbon dioxide concentration at equilibrium with the gas phase

XA :

Mass concentration of microalgae

XB :

Mass concentration of bacteria

V:

Volume of the solution

C 0 :

Inlets solute concentrations at any time (t)

C :

Effluent solute concentrations at any time (t)

k Th :

Thomas model constant (mL m−1 mg−1)

q 0 :

Maximum solid-phase concentration of solute (mg g−1)

m :

Total mass of the adsorbent (g)

t :

Bed depth service time (h)

N 0 :

Adsorption capacity (mg cm−3)

Z :

Height of column (cm)

C b :

Breakthrough sorbate concentration (mg L−1)

ϑ :

Linear velocity (cm h−1)

K a :

Rate constant (L mg−1 h−1) at time t.

kAB :

Kinetic constant(L mg−1 min)

kYN :

Rate of constant (L min−1)

τ:

Time required for 50% adsorbate breakthrough (min)

q e :

Biosorption capacity at equilibrium (mg g−1)

q m :

Maximum uptake capacity of the biosorbent

b :

Langmuir biosorption constant (L mg−1)

c e :

Equilibrium metal ions concentration (mg L−1)

\(X_{DR}\) :

Measure of adsorption capacity

\(K_{DR}\) :

Activity coefficient (mol2 K J2)

\(\varepsilon\) :

Polanyi potential respectively

R:

Ideal gas constant (8.314 J mol−1 K−1)

T:

Absolute temperature (K)

q t,:

Amounts of metal or dye adsorbed at time t (mg g−1)

k1 :

Rate constant of the pseudo-first-order kinetic model

k2 :

Rate constant of the pseudo-second-order kinetic model

t1/2 :

Half-life time in second

Kdiff :

Rate constant of intraparticle diffusion(mg g−1 min1/2)

α:

Initial adsorption rate (mg g−1 min−1)

β:

Extent of surface coverage and activation energy for adsorption (g mg−1)

∆G0 :

Gibb’s energy(J mol−1)

∆S0 :

Adsorption entropy (J mol−1 K)

∆H0 :

Adsorption enthalpy (J mol−1)

\(S\) :

Sedimentation rate

\(v\) :

Particle velocity (m s−1)

\(d_{p}\) :

Diameter of the particle

\(\rho_{p}\) :

Density of the particle

\(\rho\) :

Density of the fluid,

\(\omega\) :

Aangular velocity in (rad s−1)

\(r\) :

Distance between the central axis and the sphere

\(J\) :

Permeate flux (L m−2 h−1)

\(\eta\) :

Viscosity of permeate (Pa s)

\(R_{m}\) :

Membrane resistance (m−1)

\(R_{c}\) :

Cake resistance (m−1)

\(R_{f}\) :

Resistance from pore blocking and absorption (m−1)

A :

Frequency or pre-exponential factor

E a :

Activation energy of the reaction,

X :

Cell concentration (g L−1)

X 0 :

Initial cell concentration (g L−1)

X max :

Maximum cell concentration (g L−1)

μ m :

Maximum specific growth rate (h−1)

P :

Ethanol concentration (g L−1)

P max :

Maximum ethanol concentration (g L−1)

r m :

Maximum cell production rate, (g L−1·h)

r p.max :

Maximum ethanol production rate, (g L−1·h)

t :

Fermentation time (h)

t L :

Lag phase or lag time from the beginning of fermentation to exponential growth or ethanol production (h)

Q:

Thermal energy (KJ)

\(m_{i}\) :

Weight of reactant and solvent involved in the reaction (kg)

\(C_{Pi}\) :

Specific heat capacity of reactant and solvent (kg kg−1 °C)

\(\Delta T\) :

Change in temperature

\(C_{s}\) :

Cost of utility

\(m_{biodiesel}\) :

Weight of biodiesel produced (kg)

\(f_{I}\) :

Light intensity factor

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    Ajay Kumar

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Kumar, A. Current and Future Perspective of Microalgae for Simultaneous Wastewater Treatment and Feedstock for Biofuels Production. Chemistry Africa 4, 249–275 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42250-020-00221-9

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