The English as an Additional Language (EAL) curriculum in Australia faces persistent challenges due to the tension between promoting linguistic diversity and adhering to predominantly monolingual, monocultural norms, rooted in colonial history and exacerbated by neoliberal policies (Kostogriz & Doecke, 2008; Oliver et al., 2017; Pennycook, 2007). Despite some policy adjustments, there remains a significant gap between policy intentions and educational equity, highlighting the need for curricula that prioritise inclusivity and diversity (Green & Erixon, 2020; Lo Bianco, 2022). Advocacy for plurilingual and intercultural approaches is growing, but criticisms exist regarding implementation complexities (Makoni & Pennycook, 2012). Addressing these challenges requires a reenvisioning of the curriculum to better align with democratic ideals and the diverse realities of Australian society (Nigar et al. 203, 2024). Drawing on principles of democratic education by Dewey (1916) and Deleuzian concepts of the “fold” (1993), this paper advocates for a curriculum that celebrates linguistic and cultural diversity, promoting equity and inclusive models (Deleuze, 1993; Dewey, 1916).

EAL curriculum in Australia faces persistent challenges stemming from the tension between promoting linguistic diversity and adhering to predominantly monolingual, monocultural norms. This tension has deep historical roots in Australia’s colonial past, which promoted assimilation into Anglo-centric norms, a focus further reinforced by modern neoliberal policies prioritising market-oriented educational outcomes over multicultural integration. Scholars like Kostogriz and Doecke (2008), Pennycook (2007), Oliver et al. (2017), Green and Erixon (2020) and Lo Bianco (2022), highlight the entrenched nature of this resistance to change. They emphasise the clash between conventional educational ideologies and the evolving needs of diverse student populations.

The transition from the inclusive National Policy on Languages to the more restrictive Australian Language and Literacy Policy reflects a significant pivot towards a standardised EAL curriculum, indicative of a broader trend of reducing educational approaches to economically driven metrics (Lo Bianco, 2022; Nigar & Kostogriz, 2019; Oliver et al., 2017). Nigar and Kostogriz (2019) discuss how this shift sidelines linguistic diversity, favouring a homogenised educational approach aligned with neoliberal values. Nigar and Kostogriz (2019) discuss how this shift sidelines linguistic diversity, favouring a homogenised educational approach aligned with neoliberal values. Although there have been some modifications, particularly regarding the incorporation of indigenous elements into the curriculum, these policy adjustments often sideline broader linguistic and cultural diversity (Lo Bianco, 2022). This neglect fails to address the complex educational requirements of a progressively diverse student body.

This marginalisation not only limits the educational experiences of non-native English speakers but also detracts from the richness that a truly inclusive educational framework could offer, highlighting a significant gap between policy intentions and educational equity. Addressing this requires a re-evaluation of policies to ensure they support the linguistic and cultural plurality of Australian society and prioritise inclusivity and diversity in educational practices (Green & Erixon, 2020; Lo Bianco, 2022; Nigar et al., 2024).

Despite historical challenges, there is increasing advocacy for plurilingual and intercultural approaches within the EAL curriculum. Scholars such as Lo Bianco (2010), Slaughter and Cross (2021) and Nigar et al. (2024) uphold these strategies, recognising linguistic plurality as an invaluable educational asset. These methods seek to enrich learning environments by intertwining various languages and cultural viewpoints, promoting cognitive non-supremacy, cultural empathy, and emotional and embodied language learning among students (Green, 2015; Nigar et al., 2023). However, the pluri-/multi- lingual language education approach also faces criticism from scholars like Makoni and Pennycook (2012), who caution that these methods might lead to “multiple monolingualisms”—a situation where different languages are taught in isolation without fostering a genuinely cohesive multilingual framework. They suggest striving for a “multi-lingua franca”, a common language that accommodates multiple linguistic repertoires, to overcome this challenge. This critique highlights the complexities involved in implementing plurilingual strategies effectively and underscores the necessity for curricula that are not only carefully crafted but also conducive to fluid linguistic and cultural negotiation, avoiding the pitfalls of creating linguistic silos.

Amid ongoing debates about the best ways to implement educational strategies, the adaptation of the EAL curriculum to the demographic shifts across various educational sectors—such as primary, secondary, and vocational education—has been notably slow. This sluggish progress can be attributed largely to the entrenched commodification of education and the persistence of colonial language policies, which often fail to meet the complex socio-cultural needs of EAL learners. These issues are further exacerbated by broader neoliberal trends that emphasise marketisation and efficiency over substantive educational engagement and equity. Scholars such as Riddle and Apple (2019) and Oliver et al. (2017) highlight how these dynamics contribute to an educational environment that prioritises economic objectives over the linguistic and cultural enrichment of students. This environment hampers the development of a truly inclusive and responsive educational framework, one that is capable of adapting to and reflecting the diverse linguistic landscapes of modern classrooms.

In their seminal work, Kostogriz and Doecke (2008) offer a critical examination of the English curriculum in Australia, illuminating its persistent monolingual focus and the cultural biases favouring Standard Australian English and mainstream cultural norms. This entrenched perspective, deeply intertwined with cultural politics, frequently elevates conventional standards while marginalising genuine cultural diversity. As a result, this perpetuates colonial legacies and widens social inequalities by favouring specific cultural forms over others and rigid genre pedagogy over flexible intercultural pedagogy (Janfada & Thomas, 2020). Traditional educational perspectives frequently clash with the need for more progressive, dialogic, and culturally responsive teaching methods (Kostogriz & Doecke, 2008). Consequently, overcoming this resistance requires not only practical strategies but also a fundamental shift in educational philosophy towards inclusivity, adaptability, and student empowerment.

In the increasingly interconnected and culturally diverse landscape of advanced multicultural (post-) monolingual and (post-) national contexts, Green and Erixon (2020) underscore the pressing need to adapt the English as a First Language (L1) curriculum. They highlight the imperative for it to reflect the complexities of global communication and the myriad interactions within multicultural environments. They advocate reconceptualising English as a multilingual subject, promoting a curriculum that embraces linguistic and cultural diversity to better equip students for a globalised world. Their advocacy for a dynamic and flexible language approach accommodates diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Green’s earlier work (2015) underscores the curriculum’s role as an active and embodied set of practices, realised through daily interactions and engagements, providing a critical transition from traditional language education views to a more nuanced understanding within the EAL context.

This paper delves into the narratives encompassing the lifelong experiences of immigrant English teachers, with a particular focus on those hailing from non-native English-speaking backgrounds. Often, these educators find themselves constrained to the adult and ELICOS sectors due to employment challenges arising from the dichotomy between Native English-Speaking Teachers (NEST) and Non-Native English-Speaking Teachers (NNEST). This binary is informed by the narrative-epistemology and adjacent discourse (Nigar et al., 2024). The teachers’ narratives provide valuable insights into the challenges of navigating a colonial and neoliberal educational landscape (Nigar et al., 2023; Pennycook, 2007), highlighting the ongoing challenges within the EAL curriculum and the potential for significant reform to better align with the principles of inclusivity and democratic education.

Drawing on John Dewey’s principles of democratic education, which emphasise experiential learning and active participation (Dewey, 1916), and Gilles Deleuze’s concept of the “fold”, embedded in a fluid and dynamic curriculum responsive to cultural and linguistic diversity (Deleuze, 1988, 1993), this paper advocates curriculum as practice (Green, 2022) that not only accommodates but also celebrates and practises the multilingual and multicultural realities of contemporary classrooms. This reimagined curriculum aims to cultivate an ethical and inclusive educational environment, one that fosters active student engagement and promotes equity. Students are encouraged to actively participate in their learning journey, drawing upon their lived experiences of linguistic and cultural diversity as valuable assets and not deficits.

Empirical studies highlight the advantages of critical, dialogic, and relational approaches, showcasing their potential in enriching language learning, engagement, and identity development (Cabiles, 2024; Janfada & Thomas, 2020). Giroux (2011) stress the educator’s role in empowering linguistically diverse students through critical pedagogical practices that foster equity and social justice. Drawing from empirical evidence, Kostogriz (2012) advocates a significant re-evaluation of teacher responsibility, urging a departure from punitive accountability measures toward an ethical, relational approach to teaching. This emphasis seeks to restore dignity and humanity to the professional practice by prioritising relational bonds and ethical responsibilities over competitive metrics (Kostgriz, 2012).

Despite aspirations for a democratic EAL curriculum, current practices often fall short, influenced by high-stakes assessments and a lack of meaningful engagement with multicultural student cohorts (Riddle & Apple, 2019; Janfada & Thomas, 2020). Critical and social constructionist dimensions of EAL pedagogy, inspired by Dewey (1916) and Freire (1968) as cited by Pennycook (1990) provide a pathway towards a curriculum that encourages critical examination of linguistic and cultural ideologies and discourses, urging educators to confront the deeper implications of their teaching. We urge a rethinking of the EAL curriculum to better align it with democratic ideals and the rich diversity of language and culture in the Australian educational context. By demonstrating how theoretical foundations can inform practical classroom strategies, this paper supports educational reforms that value diversity, advocating for a shift from traditional to inclusive models better suited to today’s educational landscape. It emphasises reflective and creatively responsive teaching approaches, freeing curriculum, teachers, and students from monolingual and monocultural perspectives on learning and communication.

Theoretical premise

In our comprehensive exploration of the EAL curriculum, we employ Deleuze’s theoretical concepts of the “fold”, molar lines, and molecular lines to examine the evolving professional trajectories of EAL educators (Deleuze, 1993; Deleuze & Guattari, 1988). By integrating these intricate ideas into the curriculum as a practice framework (Green, 2022), we elucidate the dynamic interplay between established educational paradigms and the personalised journeys of educators shaped by their lived experiences.

Deleuze's philosophical ideas challenge traditional educational frameworks by advocating differentiated, inclusive, and innovative curriculum designs that perceive teaching and learning as an ongoing process of “becoming” (Colebrook, 2020; Deleuze & Guattari, 1988). This non-linear, decentralised approach effectively addresses the intricacies of the EAL curriculum by catering to learners’ linguistic, cultural, and participatory needs. Scholars such as Albrecht-Crane (2003) and Nigar et al. (2023) further emphasise the importance of creativity and affective dimensions in the learning journey, suggesting that a Deleuzian-inspired curriculum can foster more engaged and empowered learners.

John Dewey’s principles of democratic education offer a transformative potential for the EAL curriculum in Australia, involving multifaceted experiential learning, active participation, and social accountability (Dewey, 1916). This approach aligns with the Deleuzian philosophy of differentiation and the “fold” (Deleuze, 1988, 1993), promoting a curriculum that is fluid, multifaceted, and responsive to linguistic and cultural diversity. The integration of Deweyan and Deleuzian perspectives suggests a paradigm shift towards a more inclusive and democratic EAL curriculum that not only acknowledges the multicultural and multilingual realities of students but also empowers them as active participants in their language learning journey.

In this research, English teachers’ curriculuming as practice is conceptualised as the fold with a continual method of folding and unfolding (Deleuze, 1993) of interconnected relations of curriculuming English language in practice. The ongoing folding and unfolding involve constant navigation of the forces of desire: molar and molecular (Deleuze & Guattari, 1988) that are intertwined in multi-layered and multi-dimensional aspects of inside and outside of the teacher’s curriculuming in practice. Deleuze (1993) defines “fold” as.

what can be apprehended from one point of view is therefore neither a determined street nor a relation that might be determined with other streets, which are constants, but the variety of all possible connections between the course of a given street and that of another. The city seems to be a labyrinth that can be ordered. The world is an infinite series of curvatures or inflections, and the entire world is enclosed in the soul from one point of view. (p. 24)

The vectors, whose magnitude and directions map the ways desires are entangled in debilitating and enabling ways, are social ontological concepts—molar and molecular forces (Deleuze & Guattari, 1988). Molar lines relate to the subject’s embodiment of the rigid socio-cultural apparatuses (Deleuze & Guattari, 1988), like a monolingual curriculum. Molecular lines are the desired thinking representing “a precise state of intermingling of bodies in a society, including all the attractions and repulsions, sympathies and antipathies, alterations, amalgamations, penetrations, and expansions that affect bodies of all kinds in their relations to one another” (Deleuze & Guattari, 1988, p. 90), such as English teachers’ responsiveness to curriculum related to their lived experiences. The molecular lines are constantly unfolding possibilities to “become” and “becoming” against the “pre-existing, molar, arboreal” structure that inhibits becoming (Rogers et al., 2014, p. 22).

The fold is the fundamental unit for creating new relationships of lived experiences between one’s inside and outside, transcending the binary relation sedimented by the molar structure. The fold perpetually “infects and generates” new relations and possibilities from the repertoire of lived experiences and infinite possibilities outside oneself. Like differential points, the fold produces new relations. Deleuze (1993) defines “fold” as what can be apprehended from one point of view is therefore neither a determined street nor a relation that might be determined with other streets, which are constants, but the variety of all possible connections between the course of a given street and that of another. The city seems to be a labyrinth that can be ordered. The world is an infinite series of curvatures or inflections, and the entire world is enclosed in the soul from one point of view (Deleuze, 1993, p. 24). The fold contains molar and molecular forces from inside and outside the repertoire of experiences, which contribute to molar and molecular changes (Colebrook, 2020).

By amalgamating the spatial and temporal narratives of lived experiences, embodied interactions, and the vast relational tapestries of educators into the curriculum, we envisage a pedagogical framework that authentically reflects the spatial–temporal narratives of the lived experiences of the translingual educators, akin to Kostogriz’s (2020, P. 135) notion that “accountability attaches teachers (the doers) to practice (the deeds) belatedly”. This approach not only enriches the EAL educational landscape but also fosters a curriculum that is reflective of and responsive to the complex interplay of molar stability and molecular fluidity, thereby crafting a rich, dynamic, and inclusive educational experience.

The study

The research presented in this article, involving EAL educators, applied hermeneutic phenomenology and narrative inquiry (Nigar, 2020) to explore the curriculum practices of EAL educators in Australia in light of their life experiences. The study focused on a diverse group of 16 Australian English teachers with multilingual immigrant backgrounds across various educational sectors. It provided a detailed analysis (see Table 1) of their English learning journeys, which began in early childhood and led to their roles as educators. These individuals migrated to Australia, either as former international students or family migrants. Most pursued further professional education in Australia, with half of them retraining as schoolteachers but transitioning to other sectors, primarily due to employment challenges at the intersection of race, language, culture, and gender (Nigar et al., 2024). However, most teachers had prior teaching experience in schools overseas, and some worked as CRTs in Australia, except for Quang and Oksana, who continue to teach school EAL/D in highly multicultural contexts. Their collective experience spans four decades, mainly in English Language Intensive Courses for Overseas Students (ELICOS) and adult migrant education sectors in major Australian urban centres, with tenures ranging from 2 to 40 years.

Table 1 Participant profiles
Full size table

Adopting hermeneutic phenomenology and narrative approaches as outlined Nigar (2020), this study explores the nuanced interplay between the EAL teachers’ personal experiences and their pedagogical practices, eschewing conventional metrics for a more interpretative analysis rather than just representation of the data. These methodological approaches facilitated a deep exploration of how these teachers’ spatial–temporal and corporeal-relational experiences with the English language influenced their responsive teaching to meet the diverse needs of their students.

Data generation, conducted from July 2019 to September 2023, with follow ups over these years, involved reflective writing on Google Docs and subsequent interviews over time, providing a rich tapestry of teacher narratives. Participants engaged in weekly reflective writing sessions over eight weeks from 2019 to 2020, narrating and reflecting on their professional journey from pre-migration through to their settlement and teaching careers in Australia as well as imagining their future professional becoming. This process allowed for a dialogic engagement with their personal histories, enabling the teachers to articulate their “hidden” stories of learning and teaching English (Nigar, 2020).

Through holistic readings, narrative sequencing, and contextual analysis (Labov & Waletzky, 1967; Polkinghorne, 1995), hermeneutic phenomenological interpretations were applied to both written and spoken narratives. This comprehensive analysis illuminated how the teachers’ curricula as practices were deeply interwoven with their lived experiences, shaping their intercultural and inclusive educational approaches. The study revealed the dynamic nature of teacher professional practices, characterised by a continuous interplay of time, space, personal embodiment and relational engagements, thereby contributing valuable insights into the field of language education and teacher development.

Findings: Teachers’ lived experiences influence democratic curriculum ‘folding’

The research reveals that teachers’ curriculum practices are profoundly influenced by their experiences of language learning, serving as a foundation for subsequent professional learning and curriculum work. Teachers engaged in linguistic experimentation and exploration, which reflects a deep understanding of the interconnectedness of schooled and everyday knowledge in the EAL curriculum. Furthermore, the data highlights teachers' responsiveness to learners’ needs in curriculum design, reflecting principles of adaptability in education. This non-linear approach to curriculum design fosters student-centred and humanistic approaches to the EAL curriculum. Moreover, teacher reflexivity emerges as they narrated their experiences and teaching practices, leading to exercising their agency and the re-evaluation of knowledge and curriculum content and outcomes. Lastly, the findings underscore the importance of teacher-student and teacher-teacher relationships in practising curriculum in a democratic way, emphasising the diverse perspectives and multivoicedness of students within the curriculum (Janfada & Thomas, 2020; Kostogriz, 2005).

The fold of English learning and professional becoming

The research illuminates the pathways of transcultural English language teachers as they embark on their initial learning journeys, driven by a keen eagerness to engage with English amid the intricate interplay of cultural and linguistic practices across various life stages, encompassing formal and informal educational settings. This journey spatiotemporally intertwines with their decision to pursue careers in teaching (Nigar et al., 2024). As emphasised by Vygotsky (2019), vivid affective experiences, known as perezhivanie (пepeживaниe), play a pivotal role in fuelling their desire to invest in and master English, establishing themselves as English language teachers across diverse cultural contexts (Nigar et al., 2023). Through playful interactions with the English language, these teachers not only refine their language skills but also emerge as passionate educators, adept at navigating the challenges of migration. Since their early years, they have relied on mentorship and relationships with more knowledgeable others to cultivate a genuine passion for learning English through immersive and emotionally impactful experiences (Vygotsky, 1978; Nigar et al., 2003).

For instance, familial influences and engagement with English-language media cultivated an early affinity for the language among some teachers. During Oksana’s upbringing, the harmonies of “The Beatles” in shared moments with her parents resonated with her. Meanwhile, Frida’s linguistic development flourished through playful language activities like “Pictionary and Scrabble”, enjoyed with her grandmother during her father’s absence. Additionally, she delved into borrowed books from “a neighbour” and the “local library”, cultivating her language skills in congenial, enjoyable settings. Becca fondly reminisced about her deep affection for both the English language and its cultural nuances:

I’ve been exposed to English as long as I can remember, and I’ve always liked it. I liked the way it sounded, I liked its “coolness” (it was the language of movies and songs), I liked its usefulness, and I also liked the fact that I was good at it. (Becca)

These anecdotes illustrate how familial and (pop) cultural contexts and materials serve as non-formal entangled educational platforms (Pennycook, 2023), aligning with Deleuzian notions of becoming and multiplicity, where learning evolves through diverse, non-linear paths that challenge traditional pedagogical frameworks (Deleuze, 1994).

Simultaneously, Laura’s childhood experiences of acting as a teacher vividly illustrate her early connection to English education too. She recalls,

As a kid, I always pretended to be a teacher teaching my dolls. I took home chalk from school and copied what my teachers in school were doing — marking papers, and even yelling at noisy students. … So, I decided to put together my dream and weakness—become a teacher of English. (Laura)

This playful imitation not only foreshadowed her career choice but also highlighted her keen interest in teaching and language. Despite having to memorise “a dozen” essays like “Journey by Boat”, Natalie’s fascination with English was sparked by her father’s use of translanguaging, skillfully “mixing” English and Bangla when recounting “The Merchant of Venice”, particularly the phrase “all that glistens is not gold — চকচক করলেই সোনা হয় না”. This mix of languages enriched her linguistic environment and deepened her connection to English, embedding cultural and linguistic diversity into her early experiences.

Together, Laura’s and Natalie’s stories underscore the significant impact of playful and familial language interactions on their career paths in English teaching, demonstrating how early exposure and personal experiences of investment in non-formal education over time can profoundly shape educational and professional decision making (Nigar et al., 2023).

For most teachers, the foray into English language education was characterised by navigating through a complex web of traditional, sometimes inflexible educational frameworks, juxtaposed with vibrant, linguistically, culturally, socially, and materially diverse interactions (Pennycook, 2023). Initially, their formal education was characterised by monolithic teaching styles, including extensive “grammar drills”, “days and nights of exercises”, as described by Hein, and “isolated vocabulary and very common phrases” highlighted by Quang. Jasha’s early experiences were particularly disenchanting, with “boring texts to read, boring lessons on grammar, no listening and no speaking”, which she likened to the “antiquated Prussian system”, emphasising rote over engagement.

Despite these challenges, the teachers found joy, motivation and volition outside the confines of traditional education (Nigar et al., 2023). Their passion for English was ignited by interactions with English through media, games, and literature, which offered a respite and a contrast to the uninspired methods of their schools. For instance, Jasha recalls her transformative experience with literature: “When I was in Year 7, I think, I volunteered to accompany a teacher to a bookshop where she was to pick up a set of books for her Year 8 class, The Picture of Dorian Gray. I asked her whether she could get an extra book for me, and she did. I consider this the beginning of MY English”.

Moreover, relational learning emerged as a pivotal factor in shaping the trajectory of English language acquisition and professional development, as exemplified by Raphael’s experience. He recalled how he enhanced his English skills through curiosity and affinity by interacting with visitors from English-speaking nations while residing in a kibbutz. His story highlights the importance of social interaction in language learning: “…there were a lot of visitors coming from the United States, from the UK, to see life on the Kibbutz. So, I had a few friends that came from the UK and America. And I wanted to talk to them… So I improved my English just by talking to people”.

Teachers’ learning was enriched by the interplay of subjective and objective as observed by Pennycook (2023). This included interactions with family, neighbours, and international acquaintances, along with exposure to various media sources. These diverse informal educational experiences not only sustained their interest but also deepened their understanding and appreciation of English. This highlights the significant impact of culturally sensitive and engaging experiences. Despite formal education’s lack of inspiration and flexibility, integrating English into personal and cultural spheres provided a vibrant backdrop, nurturing a lifelong passion for the language. This fusion of experiences underscores the importance of hybrid, context-sensitive approaches to language education that resonate with students’ lives and interests, fostering exploration, interaction, and deep engagement with learning (Nigar et al., 2023).

The educational paths and experiences of teachers were significantly influenced by structural differences in curricula across countries, deeply shaping their teaching methods in Australia. Overseas curricula tended to be more rigid, while in Australia, they are known for their student-centred and communicative nature. Mahati reflected on this contrast, stating, “When I did my TESOL rounds at the Western English Language School, I had a ball; it was a very different experience from India and Uganda, but I learned a lot about teaching techniques” In a high school setting, Mahati’s grammar and poetry instruction, informed by her professional background in India, empowered her in navigating curriculum practices, as typically observed among non-native English-speaking teachers. “This made me feel in control of the class”, she noted. Contrary to Australia’s monolingual curriculum, overseas curricula often embraced bilingual or multilingual instruction, in stark contrast to the predominantly rigid and striated framework in Australia. Teachers, leveraging their diverse linguistic and educational backgrounds, tailored their methods, accordingly, adapting to better meet students’ needs within these curricular constraints, often unintentionally, while developing their own “hybrid professional becoming” (Nigar et al., 2024).

Most teachers (e.g., Mahati, Janaki, Jasha, Laura) had extensive experience teaching English abroad before their training in Australia, which profoundly shaped their understanding and application of Australian curricula. Moving beyond traditional textbook-based methods, several teachers adopted a more relational and responsive approach to English language teaching, informed by pedagogical perspectives such as those expressed by Doecke and Kostogriz (2008) and Nigar et al. (2023). Jasha, for example, who had grappled with a rigid and uninspiring educational system in the USSR, embraced a student-centred philosophy in her teaching. She emphasised, “the main things in the classroom, to make the classroom work, are fairness, equality, mutual respect, ability to inspire”. Reflecting on her own transformative journey with English, particularly through interactions with literature such as “The Picture of Dorian Gray”, a gift from her teacher during her eighth-grade year, Jasha felt compelled to democratise her lessons and embrace the global diversity inherent in the English language. She confidently stated, “I am aware of the ‘Englishes’ of the world, and always stress that often it's the usage in different parts of the world, rather than what a grammar book says”. This perspective highlights her commitment to a teaching approach that values diverse linguistic expressions and cultural contexts, enhancing the relevance and inclusivity of her classroom environment.

Likewise, Thi experienced a transformation in her teaching philosophy after working with expatriate teachers in Vietnam. She began to question entrenched practices such as “native speakerism” and traditional “didactic” approaches. The dynamic and supportive pedagogy she encountered as a beginning teacher in Vietnam profoundly influenced her, as she noted, “Delightful pedagogy changed my life forever as I felt energised working with young children and a mix of local and expatriate teachers”. In another context, Thi and her colleagues fostered a collaborative teaching environment by “devising quizzes, planning lessons and even peer observing each other”, illustrating a shift towards a more engaging and reflective educational practice.

These narratives illustrate how the English teachers, through reflexivity, dialogue and a deep appreciation of their students’ diverse backgrounds, have transcended the constraints of traditional, monolithic curricula (Janfada & Thomas, 2020; Kostogriz & Doecke, 2008). By using culturally and linguistically responsive teaching strategies, based on their own lived experiences in English language learning and professional education, these educators have enhanced both the enjoyment of language learning and the effectiveness of their teaching methods. This move from conventional to more learner-centred practices marks a significant shift, highlighting how ethical and dialogic teaching can enhance educational experiences.

The fold of English language teaching in Australia

English Language Teaching in Australia encompasses a multiplicity of influences from diverse educational systems. Teachers draw from their experiences both abroad and within Australia, where curricula differ significantly. Overseas curricula often lean towards prescriptive methods, contrasting with Australia’s student-centered and communicative approach. While overseas models support bi-/multilingual instruction, Australia typically adopts a monolingual stance. Despite these disparities, teachers critically reflected and exercised their agency and negotiated their methods to suit student needs, integrating their own lived experiences with English. This hybridisation occurred within the constraints of existing curricula (Kostogriz & Doecke, 2008; Slaughter & Cross, 2021).

English teachers’ curricula as practices and reflexivity or vice versa enabled them to examine hidden beliefs, judgments, and monolingual curriculum as practice vis-à-vis learners’ intercultural needs. They “differentiated” monologic curricula by recognising and appreciating translingual learners’ full linguistic repertoire (e.g., culture, beliefs, knowledge, values, identity, etc.) in reflexive and agentive practices. As teachers’ full lives influenced their practice (Nigar et al., 2023), their curriculum as practice was shaped by their English language learning, teaching and immigration experiences. Supported by mentors and drawing from her diverse experiences, Janaki confidently used her refugee students’ multilingual repertoire to adapt the Certificate II in SLPET (Settlement Language Pathways to Education and Training) curriculum to their needs. Janaki adapted the curriculum-mandated employment project into “an event to raise money for a charity organisation”.

… the students in class bonded together to do different activities and organised morning tea for the rest of the school. They also collected clothes and other things from other students and had a garage sale sort of stall. On the day, they decorated the place, organised the room and had a fabulous event. We were able to raise more than $1000 even though we are a small site with around 150-170 students. I had organised a person from Save the Children Foundation to be present a few days later to collect the money we had collected. This piece of article also appeared in the local newspaper and made me really proud of my class and our achievement.

This experience taught me how capable the student cohort can be when it comes to working together to bring out results. This also made me realise that though the language they were learning in class was quite challenging, they had the language skills to work as a team and produce results. It was very interesting to see them use their various skills- technical, numeracy skills, communicative skills to see things went smoothly on the day. (Janaki)

Janaki’s innovative adaptation of a curriculum-mandated employment project into a charity event not only exemplifies how experiential learning can enhance student engagement and achieve real-world impact, but also showcases the potential of educators to expand academic tasks into meaningful community service. By organising an event that involved the entire school in various activities and raised significant funds for a charitable cause, Janaki demonstrated the impactful integration of classroom learning with broader societal contributions, fostering students’ organisational skills, civic engagement, and sense of translingual self. Moreover, Janaki’s project illustrates how the teachers’ reflexivity, agency and creativity can transform unresponsive curricula into dynamic learning experiences that actively engage students. Janaki's experimentation of translanguaging and experiential learning significantly enriched her intercultural EAL curriculum as practice and her professional becoming, fostering the creation of imaginative curricula and nurturing intercultural, multi-literate individuals and active citizens within and beyond the educational institutions, as supported by García-Mateus and Palmer (2017) and Waterhouse (2011).

In another instance, when students requested homework, Mahati creatively integrated her knowledge of English literature and taught them the importance of recursive interpretation to discover new meanings in class material:

T. S. Elliot in England, a big poet. He said, every time I read something again and again, I find new meaning and new beauty in that. And I said, “When you read your work, go over the story again. Maybe you will find one word. I don’t know the meaning of this. Oh, I don’t know this. (Mahati).

Mahati elicited from students what “poet” and “poetry” mean in different languages, like ﺷِﻌﺮ: “shi3r” in Urdu. This translanguaging curriculum as practice shows teachers’ lived experiences and transindividual affective aspects in intercultural language teaching and learning. Her approach not only enriched the students’ understanding of literary analysis but also emphasised the ongoing, dynamic nature of learning and interpreting language, reinforcing the idea that comprehension deepens with repeated engagement across linguistic resources.

All teachers exuberantly embraced learners’ linguistic repertoires as “assets” rather than “deficits” (Hesson et al., 2014). Despite the “English only policy”, Carlos would use Portuguese in his ELICOS teaching. Inspired by his colleagues’ (e.g., Janaki’s) shared values and practices, Raphael used Arabic with migrant students because language learning is a “filtering system” (Raphael) of language resources. Raphael believed “it’s really important to use their own language to help them understand English. So, in my classroom, I let them speak in their own language”. Mandy believes,

This also fosters an atmosphere of support of linguistic diversity. Students from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds share their experiences with each other and learn things about each other’s countries.

By incorporating students’ mother tongues and other languages, most teachers actively validated their existing linguistic skills and created bridges to English, enhancing comprehension and acknowledging language as a multifaceted educational resource.

Jasha endeavored to make her lessons interesting because her own English lessons once were “boring”. She used “board games and gambits” to revise “grammar and vocab” and to “make students talk unprepared and experiment with their English … I wish I had these when learning!” Jasha preferred “visualization” and acting to explicit grammar translational methods in English language teaching.

… there is an extremely boring lesson in Language Leader, on railway journeys. It’s not just boring, it’s very Eurocentric. Most of our students have never been on a railway journey and they can’t relate to the ‘excitement’ of it. In fact, most of them have never been on even an interstate train! So, I asked them to get onboard. We ‘look’ around. We find our seats that happen to be next to the window. We recall that in Harry Potter there was a trolley lady who was selling some interesting sweets and other food, so we ‘get’ a trolley lady as well. We look out of the window and enjoy the view (based on the textbook but ‘populated’ by the students’ experience and imagination), etc. And suddenly the most boring reading (and it is really really boring!!!) comes alive. It also helps understand certain cultural concepts of a ‘journey’ and ‘destination’ and leads to a lively class discussion.

Jasha’ s innovative teaching strategies, such as using board games, visualisation, and role-playing, transformed mundane subjects into engaging and relatable learning experiences through translanguaging and trans-semiotising (Lin, 2019). By creatively adapting a lesson on railway journeys, she not only made the material accessible to students with no experience of a train journey but also enriched their understanding of cultural concepts and invigorated class discussions.

Drawing deeply from her own lived experiences as an international high school student, Ling Ling taught international high school students at an independent high school. Employing responsiveness, Ling Ling stated: “assist them to [adapt] into Australian society or to enrich their future opportunities”. She believed “there are commonalities between language education and EAL learning” and employed “teaching methodology in EAL based on language methodology”. In other words, Ling Ling’s language education methodology informed her EAL teaching. Her experiences of learning and teaching Chinese, Japanese, and English were intertwined. Like Mandy, Jigna understood the internal translanguaging of enmeshed socio-semiotic systems.

… you become more embedded in the concept. For example, … lady’s finger in Australia is okra, … I’m talking about childhood that when I saw a picture of okra in a book, I would say, I would just think about, oh, this is what my grandma and my mum make at home.

Ling Ling’s use of diverse language teaching methodologies enriches her EAL teaching, reflecting her multifaceted linguistic background. Similarly, Jigna’s anecdote about translanguaging shows how integrating personal and cultural contexts into language learning deepens students’ engagement, understanding and meaning-making—not just knowing but by relating and becoming translingual speakers of English.

Educators like Jasha, Natalie, and Becca skillfully blended student-centred, communicative approaches with intercultural educational methods such as explicit grammar teaching and translanguaging, tailored to student needs. Becca demonstrated this hybrid curriculum by integrating “drama” and “Spanish” into her teaching, alongside rigorous grammar instruction. She emphasised, “Besides communicative activities, I’m also a believer in grammar… grammar is a tool for effective communication, not the main goal”. Becca illustrated her innovative teaching approach: “I do grammar gap-fills with my students, but I try to make them as interactive as possible”. This method reinforced grammar skills while fostering an interactive, lively classroom environment conducive to learning.

The English teachers’ conception of themselves as global English language teachers enriched their curriculum. During Covid-19, Raphael assisted a motivated student who was trying her “damn best” to become a “kindergarten teacher” after Zoom English class:

… we looked at some materials and we just spoke, you know, I spoke to her. That was great because I was the one glazing over. And she was asking questions, and she wanted to know, and she wanted to understand.

The teachers’ global perspective, as highlighted by Nigar et al. (2024), fundamentally enhanced their approach to teaching. Raphael’s interactive support of a student during the pandemic exemplifies how personalised, conversational engagement can effectively facilitate deeper understanding and active learning, even in virtual settings.

Differently, Raphael acknowledged the curriculum approach to the student “as a whole”, not a system-driven learner expected in a culturally and linguistically divorced EAL content.

… when you teach you get to know students and you get to know them as people not just as students. So, you become aware of the person, …. You hear sad stories or happy stories. (Raphael)

Raphael’s holistic approach, in line with values of diversity shared by colleagues like Janaki, extended to his teaching. He recognised students as individuals with unique backgrounds and stories, enriching the educational experience. This fostered a deeper, more empathetic understanding between teacher and student, challenging the limitations of a system-driven EAL curriculum and the native and non-native binary.

During Covid-19, some teachers even experimented with interculturally enriched cosmopolitan English teaching and learning. Their curriculum as practice of intercultural EAL for local and international ELICOS students was informed by the contextual hybridisation of global Englishes (Makoni & Pennycook, 2012), and in-person and online teaching, as Jasha recalled,

… I ‘added’ a different aspect to my teaching as well. I now also teach migrants, but not English as per se but rather pre-employment skills and English: job seeking skills, resume, cover letter and interview skills and Australian employment legislations and work culture, and business English as a way to talk about different aspects of employment. This 'part' of my life is heavily 'Australianised', as you can imagine. I'd always wanted to branch out to migrants, but it had been deemed too difficult, so COVID opened a new door for me. This is 'my' program, I developed it, and I'm very happy with how it goes: many of my students find professional jobs, so I must be doing something. … As for Englishes, while 'local' component is important, I tend to focus much less on it when teaching ELICOS students located offshore: they don't need survival skills in Australia. I am well aware of the 'Englishes' of the world, and always stress that often it's the usage in different parts of the world, rather than what a grammar book says. And after all, even IELTS accepts different variations!

Teachers like Jasha (Raphael and Natalie too) further expanded their teaching to incorporate intercultural elements and practical skills during Covid-19, such as “job seeking and understanding Australian work culture” (Jasha), tailored specifically for students in Australia, while adapting the content for those abroad. This strategy effectively met the varied needs of both local and international students. Such an approach not only made her lessons more relevant but also demonstrated the English teacher’s ability to adapt English teaching to global variations and the unique requirements of their students.

The personal journeys of English teachers, encompassing language learning, teaching overseas, and professional education, establish a framework for ethically responsive EAL teaching (Kostogriz & Doecke, 2008), fostering cosmopolitan citizens and intercultural classrooms. This responsive curriculum design caters to diverse needs and expands EAL horizons. Teachers' curriculum practices reflect deep language learning experiences, fostering adaptability, student-centred approaches, and teacher reflexivity and agency. These insights underscore the fluid nature of curriculum development and educators' pivotal role in shaping inclusive learning environments and their own hybrid professional becoming (Nigar et al., 2024), as well as the hybrid becoming of their students.

Discussion

The concept of “curriculum as ‘folding’ democratic practice”, enriched by philosophical and theoretical insights (Deleuze, 1993; Dewey, 1916; Green, 2022), offers a profound framework for understanding the adaptive and fluid nature of curriculum in multicultural educational settings. It highlights how teachers’ lived experiences of language learning serve as a foundation for their subsequent professional learning and curriculum work, aligning closely with the philosophies of both Dewey and Deleuze. Dewey’s (1933, 1938) emphasis on experience and critical reflection resonates deeply, shaping pedagogical approaches and curriculum design. Teachers’ experiences become a catalyst for linguistic experimentation and exploration, echoing Deleuze’s ideas of multiplicity and rhizomatic organisation of student learning. By acknowledging the interconnectedness of schooled and everyday knowledge, educators foster inclusive learning environments that value students’ lived realities. These philosophical insights inform various aspects of curriculum development, including responsiveness, adaptability, reflexivity, multiplicity, and the fostering of democratic practices in education. By intertwining Dewey’s pragmatic philosophy with Deleuze’s concepts, educators can navigate the dynamic interplay between molar and molecular forces in curriculum design. This approach fosters a transformative learning environment that is inclusive, responsive, entangled, and adaptable to diverse student needs. Through continual reflection, exercise of agency, adaptation, and engagement with diverse lived experiences—their own and those of students—educators reconceptualise the potential of curriculum as a dynamic process that responds to globalised educational environments.

Oksana’s critical examination of the “one size fits all” approach in mainstream education echoes the sentiments of John Dewey, who emphasised the pivotal role of experience in learning and sense-making (Dewey, 1916). Oksana’s advocacy for a personalised and responsive curriculum resonates with Dewey’s philosophy, which underscores the importance of adapting education to the unique needs and interests of learners. Furthermore, her vision of “individualized” learning aligns with Deleuze’s concept of multiplicity and rhizomatic organisation of student learning, which emphasises the interconnectedness of schooled and everyday knowledge in the EAL curriculum (Waterhouse, 2020). By intertwining Oksana’s narrative with these philosophical underpinnings, we discern a layered approach to curriculum development that honours diversity, responsiveness, and experiential learning. Similarly, Thi’s innovative teaching methods encompass a range of engaging activities, including the integration of receptive skills questions such as “gap fill and cloze text”, alongside kinetic approaches like “speed dating”, “jigsaw listening and reading”, and the “writing circle activity”. Additionally, Thi incorporates peer teaching and peer learning into the classroom dynamic. These methods not only showcase Thi’s adaptability in curriculum design but also echo Dewey’s principle of responsiveness to the diverse needs and contexts of learners (Dewey, 1933, 1938). Thi’s approach aligns with Dewey’s emphasis on student-cantered learning and resonates with Deleuze’s notion of language learning as inseparable from personal transformation, emphasising continual adaptation in curriculum design (Deleuze, 1994). Moreover, Thi’s student-cantered and humanistic approaches exemplify the negotiated curriculum, reflecting Dewey’s philosophy of empowering students as active participants in their own educational journeys (Dewey, 1938), which further connects to the ethical nature of this practice asserted by Kostogriz and Doecke (2008). Kostogriz and Doecke (2008) emphasize “ethical teaching”, noting that dialogical ethics, which challenges cultural monologism and encourages recognition and teaching of the Other, is particularly pertinent (p. 268).

In the rich tapestry of educational narratives woven by the teachers (e.g., Raphael and Becca), the threads of critical reflection and exercises of agency form a vital pattern within the fabric of curriculum design. Their experiences resonate as echoes of Dewey and Deleuze, promoting the ongoing revaluation of knowledge and its applications. Raphael’s poignant recollection of his Jewish mother's journey from Germany to Palestine encapsulates the complexities of migration and asylum. Through his lens, the label of “illegal” dissolves under scrutiny, revealing the deeper truth of seeking refuge and safety. Becca’s transformative realisation during her teaching journey illuminates the evolution from reliance on prescribed methods to the embracing of creativity. Her “epiphany”, sparked by an ELICOS student’s linguistic prowess during an excursion, unveils the limitations of traditional tools like textbooks and heralds a shift towards a more engaging and inclusive pedagogy. Within these narratives, the concept of ‘folding’ democratic practice emerges—a dynamic interplay between personal experiences, pedagogical insights, and societal contexts. The teachers’ narratives of lived experiences are undoubtedly interwoven into this tapestry, enriching its texture with their unique lived experiences and encounters. Through the lens of these educators, the curriculum transcends mere content delivery, becoming a living, breathing entity that adapts and evolves alongside the learners it serves. In their reflections and realisations, we witness the power of introspection, dialogue, and adaptation in shaping educational practices that resonate deeply with the diverse tapestry of human experience (Janfada & Thomas, 2020).

Amidst these narratives, Janaki’s critical reflection emerges as a beacon, illuminating the power of adaptation within a monolingual framework. Her experience with the Certificate II in SLPET (Settlement Language Pathways to Education and Training) project showcases the transformative potential inherent in students tapping into their trans-lingual/trans-semiotic repertoire (Lin, 2019). In navigating and overcoming the exclusion of diverse linguistic and cultural repertoires, students forged pathways of negotiation and collaboration, ultimately imbuing their education with deeper meaning by raising “$1000 for the Save the Children Foundation”. Janaki’s observation encapsulates this dynamic beautifully: “It was very interesting to see them use their various skills—technical, numeracy skills, communicative skills—to ensure things went smoothly on the day”.

Furthermore, this adaptive spirit births an intercultural EAL curriculum, a mosaic woven from myriad directions and connections, as depicted by Albrecht-Crane’s metaphor (2023). This intricate tapestry, characterised by “supple, small-scale, molecular” interactions, redefines the boundaries of traditional curriculum (Albrecht-Crane, 2003, p. 578). Such a molecular approach, akin to Semetsky’s transformative vision, not only decentres the curriculum but also nurtures a democratic and cosmopolitan identity among learners and educators alike (Semetsky, 2003).

These exemplary instances vividly demonstrate educators’ remarkable ingenuity in ingeniously integrating inclusive language teaching methodologies within the confines of non-diverse and monolingual constraints, thereby enriching the educational journey and fostering inclusivity and democracy. Moreover, at the very core of this transformative process lies the cultivation of a multiplicity of relationships—between teachers and students, and among educators themselves (e.g., co-teaching and professional development by working with mentor teachers by teachers like, Mahati, Janaki, Laura, Jigna, Natalie)—a sentiment that resonates deeply with Dewey’s democratic ideals in education. Deleuze’s (1994) concept of multiplicity echoes this sentiment, underscoring the imperative of embracing diverse lived experiences in the development of curriculum. Through the cultivation of inclusive and participatory learning environments, educators empower students to actively co-create their educational experiences, thereby embodying the very essence of democratic education.

Deleuze’s concept of the “fold” (1993) offers a nuanced understanding of how the virtual potentials inherent in educational environments interact fluidly with their actualisation, in response to the diverse needs of students. This philosophical viewpoint conceives of life and education as ongoing “unfoldings” of potential, where time, space, body, and relationships are continuously negotiated through lived experiences, experimentations, and discoveries. Internal and external worlds differentiate through perception, promoting a flamboyant educational experience. This framework challenges the conventional binaries of subject and object, mind and body, teacher and learner, or native and non-native advocating for an educational process characterised by unfinalised perpetual becoming—a series of folds that seamlessly integrate virtual possibilities into practical applications (Deleuze, 1993). Building on this, Green (2015) highlights the significance of attending to the embodied nature of pedagogical practices, proposing that this attention can catalyze innovative and productive educational practices. This approach calls for a reevaluation of the roles and representations of bodies within the teaching environment, aiming to enhance pedagogical outcomes by foregrounding the physical and experiential aspects of education (Green, 2015).

In the context of transcultural and translingual EAL curriculum, the curriculum as practice is continually shaped by both molar and molecular forces (Deleuze, 1988). Jasha’s pedagogy offers a vivid illustration of this dynamic interplay. By reinterpreting the “Eurocentric” topic of “Railway Journey” through the infusion of personal experiences and drama, Jasha transcends the limitations of a traditional lesson, transforming it into a vibrant exploration of language that deeply resonates with students from diverse backgrounds. This responsive approach not only heightens engagement and yields unexpected outcomes (Nigar et al., 2023) but also facilitates the integration of students’ varied experiences into the educational journey. In doing so, Jasha’s pedagogy embodies Deleuze's concept of the “fold,” exemplifying an ongoing dialogue between the curriculum’s molar constraints and the molecular innovations that emerge within it. Semetsky’s vision of transformative educational practices further underscores the importance of embracing diverse perspectives and promoting inclusivity within the curriculum (Semetsky, 2010), emphasising the role of educators like Jasha in fostering a dynamic and responsive learning environment.

Further instances of this dynamic interplay are evident in Quang’s approach, which prioritises comprehensibility over “nativeness” in language instruction, emphasising relational communication over rigid linguistic standards. Similarly, Becca and Laura’s commitment to regular feedback sessions, where they adjust their teaching strategies based on direct student feedback, demonstrates a fluidity and responsiveness in their approach. This emphasis on flexibility, perfectionism, and “confidence” (as noted by Laura) embodies Deleuze’s concept of adapting and refining techniques (1994), fostering a responsive and generative educational environment. Additionally, Hein's empathy towards her students' speaking barriers, demonstrated by her use of gestures to communicate, highlights her incorporation of diverse and hybrid teaching strategies. For instance, she employed “WeChat” for “tag questions”, “language analysis”, participated in “intentional chatting sessions” in and outside classroom, and transitions from writing-heavy lessons to speaking-focused activities after reflecting on student needs in communicating to others, such as native English-speaking partners. This approach exemplifies the curriculum’s flexible and responsive nature enhanced by teacher’s agency (Nigar et al., 2024). Not only do these methods boost student engagement, but they also effectively address the diverse linguistic and communicative needs of the students.

This cultured approach to curriculum as ‘folding’ democratic practice embodies a multiplicity of interplay between the rigid structures of traditional curricula and the dynamic, personalised practices characteristic of intercultural education. It aligns with John Dewey’s focus on experiential learning and Deleuze’s philosophical explorations of becoming and creativity, advocating a curriculum that continuously transforms to meet the complex needs of a diverse student cohorts. This process, intricately folded by the tangible and potential experiences of students and teachers, extends beyond the traditional classroom boundaries to encompass a broader spectrum of educational interactions, thereby blurring the distinctions between private and public, individual and collective, and the inside and the outside of educational experiences (Semetsky, 2010).

Conclusion

In synthesising the insights from this study, it becomes evident that the notion of “curriculum as ‘folding’ democratic practice” within intercultural EAL curriculum, enriched by the narratives of lived migration experiences and innovative pedagogies of English teachers, transcends the traditional monolingual education frameworks. These educators, through their profound empathy, rapport and creative teaching methods, have constructed a curriculum that not only embraces multiple languages but is also attuned to the cultural complexities of a diverse student body, thus fostering a learning environment that is both cosmopolitan and inherently democratic.

This pedagogical transformation echoes Gilles Deleuze’s notion of recurrence as described in terms of difference and repetition (Deleuze, 1994), and is also emphasised in Semetsky’s discussions on the rhizomatic and non-linear nature of learning (Semetsky, 2003, 2010). This approach, which consistently adapts to the rich tapestry of experiences brought by both teachers and students, is encapsulated in the notion of “folding and unfolding” of the curriculum—a concept that resonates with John Dewey’s democratic vision of education (Dewey, 1916). It espouses fluid, context-aware curriculum work that not only meets the linguistic demands of learners but also fosters their intercultural and cosmopolitan development.

The study advocates a transformative EAL curriculum in Australia, termed “curriculum as “folding’ democratic practice”, deeply rooted in the rich, multilingual, and transcultural lived experiences of English teachers. This research highlights a departure from rigid educational models toward flexible and responsive pedagogies, exemplified by narratives such as Jasha’s account of an innovative lesson. This shift embodies a cycle of renewal from established norms to adaptable approaches, akin to a process of recurrence and continuous ad-libbing, as described by Deleuze (1994) and Dewey (1916). The insights derived from this research underscore the broader implications for incorporating diversity across relevant subject areas, suggesting that similar principles can potentially enrich other curricula, enhancing inclusivity and intercultural understanding and learning across the educational spectrum.

By calling for a paradigm shift towards a curriculum that celebrates linguistic and cultural diversity alongside democratic engagement, this study emphasises the need for a pedagogical framework that prepares students not merely for linguistic proficiency but for meaningful participation in a globally interconnected society. This advocacy for an educational environment that is both inclusive and rich in intercultural content aligns with Dewey’s (1916) and Deleuze’s (1994) visions of a continuously improving, self-analysing education system that responds to societal changes. Such a system equips learners with the skills to thrive and make meaningful contributions and identity development within an increasingly multicultural and diverse global landscape, thereby fulfilling the democratic promise of education as an empowering and thriving force in society.