Abstract
El-Alamein new city is regarded as one of the iconic cities of the Egyptian North Western Coast to be not only residential units but also summer resorts for tourist attractions. This study examines the efficiency of integrating geophysical methods for determining if clay lenses exist or seawater has intruded into shallow strata and for calculating the geotechnical parameters of near-surface layers for construction purposes. Nine electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and shallow seismic refraction (SSR) profiles are conducted in this study. From ERT data, we observed the intrusion of seawater in layers at different depths. From SSR data, two layers are observed along profiles, while three layers are observed along the other profiles according to their velocities. Near-surface geotechnical parameters, that were calculated from SSR data, are integrated to evaluate our study area. Accordingly, it was considered a low-competent area and suitable for buildings with low heights, and the only difference is the intrusion of seawater, therefore, it is subdivided into 2 zones. In zone (A), the second layer is used as a foundation layer. Zone (B) is pretentious by the intrusion of seawater, and it is not suggested to construct any buildings or to improve the strength of concrete exposed to seawater in this zone to be suitable also for buildings with a low height.
Highlights
-
Geophysical methods (Nine profiles of ERT and (SSR) were used in El-Alamein new city to assess clay lenses and seawater intrusion for construction purposes.
-
Seawater intrusion and varying layers were observed at different depths, influencing the geotechnical parameters and subdivision of the study area.
-
The second layer in the study area was subdivided into two zones, one is suitable for foundation, while another is affected by seawater intrusion and not recommended for construction or using concrete exposed to seawater.
Explore related subjects
Find the latest articles, discoveries, and news in related topics.Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
1 Introduction
The Egyptian north-western coastal region is among the most hopeful areas for future development, the establishment of new cities with a global stamp, and the creation of new projects that provide additional opportunities for economic development and face the population increase. One of these projects is a hotel building, where our study lies, in El-Alamein new city on the Mediterranean coast covering about one square kilometer. It lies between latitudes 30° 58′ 15.18′′ N–30° 58′ 28.27′′ N and between longitudes 28° 45′ 23.87′′ E–28° 45′ 23.87′′ E (Fig. 1). Any new project requires site investigation, which consists of obtaining information that may impact the project's construction (Clayton et al. 1995; Baniela et al. 2021). Nowadays, geophysical methods come into play as efficient tools that precede the construction process for studying rock succession, existing structures, saltwater intrusion, cavities, …. etc. Among all geophysical techniques required to image the near surface, both ERT and SSR represent an excellent modern technique used for environmental, engineering, geotechnical, groundwater, and saltwater intrusion investigations (Basheer et al. 2013; Hewaidy et al. 2015; Ma and Zhang 2015; Kazakis et al. 2016; Mohamaden et al. 2016; Goebel et al. 2017; Alabjah et al. 2018).
In ERT method, the subsurface layer’s resistivities are highly affected by the presence of water, which directly affects the measured resistivity values (El-sayed and Mohamaden 2018). Our area under investigation lies on the shoreline, so it is essential to study the intrusion of water in the layers and any abnormal changes in the homogeneous layers that reflect clay lenses to avoid them (Alshehri et al. 2021; Satheeskumar et al. 2021; Basheer and Salama 2022). In SSR method, the velocity provides a mechanism for measuring the strength and evaluating the quality of rock materials, since it depends on the density and elasticity of the material through, which the energy is passed (Almalki et al. 2011; Comina et al. 2021; Ray et al. 2021). Because beach sand makes up the surface of the study area, it is crucial to understand the geotechnical properties of the various strata and how they affect the height of structures that are planned to be built (Sakr et al. 2021; Basheer and Salama 2022).
The results from the two applied methods will be integrated to accomplish the primary objectives of our current study which are the delineation of the shallow subsurface layering, the detection of seawater intrusion and its effects on the foundation layers, and the determination of the geotechnical characteristics of the rocks that make up the area and its relationship to the types of buildings that can be constructed.
2 Geological settings
Two geomorphic units make up Egypt's north-western coast, which runs parallel to the shoreline. It is arranged with a northward sloping piedmont zone between the southern tableland and the northern coastal region (Shata 1957; Hammad 1972; Misak 1974; Raslan 1995; Massoud et al. 2015). The top-most surface deposits of the coastal region, where our area under investigation lies, are covered by sedimentary rocks belonging to the Tertiary and Quaternary ages as shown in Figs. 2 and 3 (Shukri et al. 1956; Butzer 1960; Said 1962, 1990; Atwa 1979). The coastal region is made up primarily of oolitic limestone of varying degrees of hardness that was formed during the Pleistocene period but is occasionally missed or deformed due to local structures and/or erosion effects. It is characterized by two elongated foreshore and inland ridges and shallow depressions (Hammad 1966; Shata 1971). Sand dunes, sand beaches, and marches are some of the additional features that may be found in the coastal region (Massoud et al. 2015; Basheer and Salama 2022). The Pliocene Hagif and Middle Miocene Marmarica formations, that made mostly of fissured limestone, are the primary Tertiary deposits covering the southern tableland (Yousif et al. 2013).
Geology of the study area (modified after Basheer and Salama 2022)
Tectonically, “The unstable shelf” is occupying most of northern Egypt (Said 1990) including the area under investigation. Since the Precambrian until the present, the study area and its environs have been affected by various tectonic events. Three tectonic trends can be seen in the basement rocks, including the Red Sea (NNW), Tibesti (NE), and Nubian (N-S) trends (BAPETCO 2007). Additional E-W tectonic patterns developed from the Late Paleozoic to the Late Jurassic (Sultan and Halim 1988). An oceanic trench that contains the Hellenic subduction zone (HSZ), which is the nearby boundary between the African plate and the Eurasian plate, has another tectonic effect on the Mediterranean (Gordon et al. 2003; Royden and Papanikolaou 2011; Le Pichon et al. 2019; Basheer and Salama 2022).
3 Methodology
3.1 Electric resistivity tomography (ERT) measurement
In ERT survey, two electrodes (current, or A–B) are used for current injection into the earth and another two electrodes (potential, or M–N) are used to measure the potential drop between potential electrodes caused by the injecting current on the ground. Then, by dividing the measured potential difference (∆V) by the input current (I) and multiplying the result by a geometrical factor (K), where (a) represents the radius or the distance from the reference point to the measurement point, we got the apparent resistivity (ρapparent), (Loke and Barker 1996; Xayavong et al. 2022).
In this study, the multi-electrode technique is used which consists of a 48-electrodes on a multi-core cable implanted into the ground at a fixed spacing every six-meter using a Wenner array (Fig. 4a), and the data was obtained along nine profiles distributed over the area under investigation directed from NW to SE (Fig. 1). This array is advantageous because it offers a high signal-to-noise ratio, which is typically employed for strong vertical resolution and a clear image of the subsurface (Baharuddin et al. 2011; Eissa et al. 2016; Sakanann et al. 2020). In the IRIS Syscal Pro resistivity meter used in this study, the relays are located which enable the selection of any four of those electrodes two for (A, B) current injection and two (M, N) for potential measurement for each measurement by a sequence of readings established and recorded in the equipment's internal memory. A laptop connected to a resistivity meter checks that all the electrodes are connected and properly grounded before measurements start (Fig. 4b).
3.2 Shallow seismic refraction (SSR) measurement
The seismic wave moves down and along the various boundaries of refractors. The critical angle (θc) -the angle of incidence at which the refraction angle is 90 degrees- occurs when the velocity in the deeper layer (V2) is higher and increases with depth (Sjogren 1984; Kearey et al. 2002; Lowrie 2007). This results in the creation of a refracted ray with (θc) that moves along the interface with a high velocity (V2). The wave's interaction with the interface results in a secondary source that creates upgoing wavefronts that emerge at θc, or what Huygen's principle refers to as a head wave. Only critically refracted waves are concerned in seismic refraction surveys. If falls at an angle less than θc, part of it is reflected and the other remaining portion is refracted at a lower angle while if it falls at an angle higher than θc, all the energy is reflected with no refraction ray (Milsom 2003). Only the first arrival of these energies is detected by the geophones that are arranged along the ground from the source and these arrivals represent a direct ray or a refracted ray (Fig. 5). To store them in the stacking memory, it is first transformed to digital signals. The electrical signal is amplified by the seismograph from several thousand to several ten thousand times and the results are recorded as waveform data (Telford et al. 1990a, b; Reynolds 2011). Nine seismic profiles are aligned along the NW–SE direction parallel to the coast of the Mediterranean Sea (Fig. 1) to record compressional (primary or P-) waves (Fig. 6a) and shear (or S-) waves (Fig. 6b). The geophones and shot points are in-line with three different relative positions of the shot point. In the first (Normal) arrangement the shot point is placed 5 m from geophone 1, in the second (Middle) arrangement, the shot point is placed in the intermediate point between geophone 24 and 25, and in the third (Reverse) arrangement the shot point is placed 5 m from the last geophone (Fig. 7). The seismograph, which has been used in this study, is “Geometrics, Smartseis”. The distribution of the ERT profiles is placed in the same sites of SSR (Fig. 1) to give a good correlation between them and to prevent ambiguity in the measurements of one of the two methods.
Seismic ray path of direct, reflected, and refracted waves (modified after Reynolds 2011)
4 Results and discussion
4.1 Electric resistivity tomography (ERT) results
The Res2dinv resistivity inversion software edited in 1998 is used to produce a two-dimensional resistivity model by automatically inverting the data that has been collected (Edwards and Hillel 1977; Griffiths and Barker 1993). Using the least square inversion by Jacobian matrix calculation, a representation of the true resistivity distribution as a function of depth was created (Loke 2001) to locate the high resistivity zones and the low resistivity zones that attributed to water-saturated layers. Saline water typically has an extremely low resistivity, averaging around 0.2 Ohms.m (Nowroozi et al. 1999; Rao et al. 2011), whereas the resistivities of sand saturated with a saltwater range from 8 to 50 Ω.m (Adepelumi et al. 2009; Kouzana and Benassi 2010; McInnis et al. 2013; Basheer et al. 2014; Basheer and Salama 2022). Silty sand that is a mixture of both granular and fine particles has lower electrical resistivity than dry sand that has exceedingly high resistivity (Fukue et al. 1999; Munoz-Castelblanco et al. 2012) because the grain size fraction can affect the ease of current propagation inside each geomaterial, with fine particles allowing current to flow easily and producing low resistivity values and coarse grains providing high resistivity values due to the difficulty of current propagation (Abidin et al. 2012). Consequently, the resistivity shows a sharp reduction even with a little raise in water content (Archie 1942; Gupta and Hanks 1972; McCarter 1984; Kalinski and Kelly 1993; Yan et al. 2012). The inverted data clearly show that three layers can be observed in the area under investigation along profiles 1 (P1) and 5 (P5) while defined two layers along profile 9 (P9). Profile 9 is closest to the Mediterranean Sea, so the water interference appears at a high level (Fig. 8c). This level decreases as we move far from the seacoast until profile 5 (Fig. 8b) and decreases further until reaching profile 1 (Fig. 8a) (the farthest from the sea).
The top layer, which is noticed along all profiles, has high values for resistivity from about 500 Ω m to 800 Ω m in profile 1 with depth from the surface to about 13 m, between 500 and 750 Ω.m in profile 5 with depth from the surface about 10.5 m, and between about 200–720 Ω m in profiles 9 with depth from the surface to about 8.5 m. The second layer, observed along profiles 1 and 5, is distinguished by moderate values from 200 to 500 Ω m from a depth of 13 to about 18 m as observed in profile 1 and from 10.5 to 14 m as observed in profile 5. The third layer, observed along profiles 1, 5, and 9, is distinguished by low resistivity values ranging between 0.1 to about 200 Ω m. These low values exist at different depths from less than about 8.5 m (as in P9), below about 14 m (as in Profile 5), and below 18 m (as in Profile 1). This reflects the seawater intrusion in the sand layer (sand saturated layer).
4.2 Shallow seismic refraction (SSR) result
The times of the first arrival measured at geophones located at varying distances from the source make up the data obtained from a refraction survey. When the data are displayed on a graph with vertical time axes and horizontal geophones offset axes, the time-distance curve is obtained. Any line that fits the plotted data has a slope whose reciprocal equals the velocity. For simplicity and similarity between the nine profiles, only 3 seismic profiles of 1, 5, and 9 will be used as an example in the present study, and when there is a noticeable difference in seismic velocities, a comparison with the other six profiles will be made. The time distance curve for P1 (Fig. 9 a and b), P5 (Fig. 10a and b), and P9 (Fig. 11a and b). Then, to create geo-seismic cross-sections, the layer's depth, thickness, and velocities under each geophone were determined using Seisimager software. By linking to nine test wells with this information, accurate and integrated information can be obtained. It is clear from the interpreted data that there are three layers along profile 5 while there are two layers along profiles 1 and 9.
The top layer (beach sand) consists of beach sand which has P-wave velocities ranging between 400 and more than 950 m/sec (Figs. 9c, 10c, 11c), S-wave velocities ranging between 150 and 330 m/sec (Figs. 9d, 10d, 11d), and the thickness varies from 10.08 m (as shown in well 4 along P5) to 16.1 m (as shown in well 3 along profile 1). The horizontal variations of both waves’ values are high in the southwestern corner and gradually decrease toward the northeast direction of the area under investigation (Fig. 12a and b).
Layer two consists of fine sorted sand (Silty sand) and its P-wave velocities change with the depth and ranging between 700 and 1300 m/sec (Fig. 9c, 10c), S-wave velocities ranging between 230 and 430 m/sec (Fig. 9d, 10d), thickness varies from 2.32 to 8.99 m, and depth to the top of this layer varies from 13.8 m (as shown in well 1 along profile 1) to 16.1 m (as shown in well 3 along profile 1). For the horizontal variations in P- and S- waves (Fig. 12c and d), it is observed that the velocity values are high in the northwestern, western, and southwestern parts of our area under investigation and decrease in the northeast direction.
Layer three consists of sand saturated with seawater which has P-wave velocities ranging between 700 and more than 1200 m/sec (Fig. 10c, 11c), S-wave velocities ranging between 170 and 390 m/sec (Fig. 10d, 11d), and thickness varies from 18.2 to 25.4 m and depth to top of this layer varies from 6.89 m (in well 7 along profile 9) to 14.05 m (in well 6 along profile 5). The highest values of both P- and S- waves are observed in northwestern, western, and southwestern parts of our area under investigation and decrease toward the northeast and southeast directions (Fig. 12e and f).
4.3 Evaluation of geotechnical properties
To compute these properties, the compressional wave velocity (VP) and shear wave velocity (VS) from SSR profiles with density (\(\rho\)) values are required. When these properties are integrated, it is possible to better understand the engineering condition of the underlying rocks in our area under investigation, which enables us to divide the area into separate zones based on how suitable the subsurface soils and rocks are for construction activities.
4.3.1 Poisson’s ratio (σ)
It is defined as the product of dividing the contraction strain in the lateral direction per unit width divided by longitudinally extension strain per unit length with dimensionless units (Sheriff 1991). When the rocks have σ of 0.5, they behave like fluids and for extremely hard indurate rocks, it is almost zero (Salem 1990; Telford et al. 1990a, b; Gretener 2003). The more competent (hard) material is, the smaller the values of σ are, and vice versa (Telford et al. 1990a, b).
where, (\({\upsigma }\)) is Poisson’s Ratio, (\({\text{V}}_{{\text{s}}}\)) is shear velocity, (\({\text{V}}_{{\text{p}}}\)) is primary velocity. The distributions of this ratio for the three layers are shown in Figs. 13a, b, and c. The lowest values for the three layers are observed in the northeastern part and increase gradually toward the southwest direction. All three layers are characterized by a relatively high Poisson’s ratio, which indicates incompetent to slightly competent soil/rock.
4.3.2 The N value
It is known as the number of blows required to penetrate the soil by using a cylindrical bar under a standard load. It is geotechnically known as the SPT (Standard Penetration Test) (Meyerhof 1956; Seed and Idriss 1982; Seed and De Alba 1986). Additionally, bearing capabilities can be calculated using the N-values (Othman 2005). These values are computed using Imai's (1975) equation that was modified by Stumpel et al. (1984):
Where, (\({\text{N}}\)) is the number value of SPT and (\({\text{V}}_{{\text{s}}}\)) is the shear velocity. Table 1 shows the values of N-values and what this reflects according to Bowles (1984) classification. Generally, for the three layers in our area, these values are low in the northeastern, eastern, and southeastern corners and increase gradually toward the southwestern, western, and northwestern parts and the middle values in between them as shown in Figs. 14a, b, and c.
4.3.3 Concentration index (Ci)
It is a parameter used in engineering that explains the level of material compaction or concentration for foundation purposes. The depth-pressure distribution and materials’ elastic moduli are the key variables that affect the concentration index. The larger the values, the more competent materials are, and vice versa. The following formula is used to calculate the concentration index (Ci) in terms of (\({\upsigma }\)) Poisson’s ratio (Bowles 1982):
The following equation of Abd Elrahman (1991) is applied to calculate this value:
where \(\left( {\frac{{V_{s}^{2} }}{{V_{p}^{2} }}} \right)\) is the result of division the square of the shear velocity of layer by the primary velocity of the same layer. The distribution values of this index are shown in Figs. 15a, b, and c. The values are low in the southwestern, western, and northwestern parts of the area under investigation and increase gradually to the middle part until reaching maximum values in the east and the northeastern portions of the area under investigation, this indicates a less competent material. The same nature of the majority of the components that make up the sand layers could account for the values' close proximity (Shipton and Coop 2015) and the minor variations result from the simple proportional overlap of other components like clay and silt, a change in sand grain size, or a rise in the vertical load on the lower strata (Basu et al. 2008; Gupta and Basu 2017; Basheer and Salama 2022).
4.3.4 Stress ratio index (Si)
It can be achieved by dividing the pore-filling fluids’ stress or horizontal and vertical stress at a specific depth. Bowles (1982) noted that the behavior of this ratio is like that of Poisson's ratio, where its value increases for the less hard (competent) and cohesive materials with high water content (Al-Fahdawi and Salah 2000). The following relationship was given by Bowles (1982) and Thomsen (1986) to calculate this stress ratio index (Si) in terms of Poisson’s ratio (\({\upsigma }\)):
Abd Elrahman (1991) expressed other relations to calculate this ratio:
where \(\left( {\frac{{{\text{V}}_{{\text{s}}}^{2} }}{{{\text{V}}_{{\text{p}}}^{2} }}} \right)\) is the outcome of dividing the square of the shear velocity of layer by the primary velocity of the same layer. The distribution values of this index are shown in Figs. 16a, b, and c. The low values are observed in the northeastern corners of the three layers and the eastern, and southeastern edges of the third layer in our area under investigation. These values gradually increase toward the southwest, west, and northwest directions reaching the maximum values in the southwestern part. According to the classification scale of Abd Elrahman (1989), the three layers indicate a less competent material. The three layers in the area under investigation are similar in that they are sandy which accounts for the uniformity in values (Massarsch et al. 2021) and the small variance is due to the accumulating vertical weight change particularly on the bottom of each layer (Stapelfeldt et al. 2021; Basheer and Salama 2022).
4.3.5 Foundation material bearing capacity
In Geotechnics, it is the rock, soil, or foundation material capacity to safely support loads without shearing (Terzaghi 1943). It is divided into ultimate bearing capacity (Qult) which is the maximum vertical pressure that can be sustained without failing and allowable bearing capacity (Qa) which is obtained by reducing Qult by a factor of safety (FS) (Abd Elrahman et al. 1992). The shear strength of the soil beneath the foundation load predominantly determines Qult and is expressed in terms of the N-values as shown by Parry’s formula (1977):
where ultimate bearing capacity (Qult) and (N) is the value of SPT.
The allowable bearing capacity can be calculated according to Parry (1977) and Abd Elrahman (1989):
where (FS) is the factor of safety, which is a multiplier applied to the ultimate load to ensure a sufficient margin of safety in the design. In the case of cohesive soil, FS equals (3), while in the case of cohesionless soil, it equals (2) For the three layers, the relatively low Qult and Qa (Figs. 17 and 18, respectively) values are observed in the northeastern, eastern, and southeastern parts, and increasing toward the southwest, west, and northwest directions reflect the high bearing capacity materials (Table 2).
Using the geotechnical parameters that were calculated from interpreted data of Shallow Seismic Refraction (SSR), the area under investigation will be divided into 2 zones (Fig. 19) but in general, it is a low competent area suitable for low buildings with a very small variation and seawater intrusion. Zone (A) occupies the north-western, western, and southwestern parts to about the middle part of our area under investigation. In it, the top layer is beach sand composed of soft loose material with low bearing capacity. The second layer is composed of fine sorted, nearly wet silty sand with a medium bearing capacity and a good hardness with slightly competent materials. It is suggested to take this layer (2nd) as a foundation layer after removing the top layer and it is suitable for light buildings.
Zone (B) occupies the middle part of our area under investigation to northeast, east, and southeast seaward directions. The top layer is like that of zone (A), but its thickness gradually decreases in the direction of the sea. Also, the second layer is an extension of the second layer in zone (A). This layer appears at the middle part of zone (B) with a thickness that decreases until disappears at the end of the area near the sea. The third layer is sand saturated with seawater. The intrusion of seawater will increase the soil particle disintegration and increases the porosity and permeability and because of the impacts of tidal motions during hurricane seasons, the stability of the soil will be impacted by this intrusion, and seawater may rise to the surface.
5 Conclusion and recommendation
The geophysical investigation has fed worthy insights and crucial and significant information pertaining to the subsurface characteristics and geological attributes of the area under investigation. Based on the ERT data, we found that there are three layers; two of them were observed at profiles near the sea while we observed that there are three layers as the profiles become farther from the sea due to the low level of seawater intrusion and thus the exposure of the layers to become from saturated with water to nearly wet. This intrusion begins to appear at the seashore in the north-eastern, eastern, and south-eastern parts of our area under investigation at a depth of about 8.5 m and decreases gradually to a depth of 14 m in the middle of our area under investigation and it further decreases to a depth of 18 m at the northwest, west, and southwest direction of the area under investigation. All layers are consistent layers without any horizontal variation that indicates the absence of clay lenses but the resistivity varies vertically due to the seawater intrusion into the third layer (saturated sand).
SSR data compared with drilled wells in our area under investigation was used to delineate the shallow subsurface layers and determine the geotechnical characteristics of the rocks. We found that three layers also characterize our area under investigation; two of them are observed along profiles 1 and 9, and three of them are observed in the middle part of the area. This difference is due to the various physical characteristics that each method depends on. The top layer (beach sand) has P-wave velocities ranging between 400 and more than 950 m/sec and S-wave velocities ranging between 150 and 330 m/sec. The second layer (Silty sand) has P-wave velocities change from between 700 and 1300 m/sec and S-wave velocities change from 230 and 430 m/sec. The third layer (sand saturated with seawater) has P-wave velocities change from 700 and more than 1200 m/sec and S-wave velocities change from 170 and 390 m/sec.
From the calculation and integration of geotechnical parameters such as Poisson’s ratio, N values, stress ratio, concentration index, and bearing capacities, our area under investigation is divided into two zones with low bearing capacities. Zone B is affected by seawater intrusion. Because of erosion of the iron utilized in building foundations by this intrusion, it is advised to keep this zone without any buildings or improve the durability of concrete exposed to seawater to be suitable also for light building.
Data availability
The datasets generated during the current study are available under request from the corresponding author.
References
Abd Elrahman MM (1989) Evaluation of the kinetic elastic moduli of the surface materials and application to engineering geologic maps at Maba-Risabah area (Dhamar Province), Northern Yemen. Egypt. J Geol 33:229–250
Abd Elrahman MM (1991) Rock material competence assassed by seismic measurements with emphasis on soil competence scales and their applications in some urban areas in Yemen. EGS. Proc. 9th Ann Meet 9:205–230
Abd Elrahman MM, Setto I, El-Werr A (1992) Inferring mechanical properties of the foundation material at the 2nd industrial zone, Sadat city, from geophysical measurements. E.G.S. Proc 9th Ann Meet 10:206–228
Abidin MHZ, Saad R, Ahmad F, Wijeyesekera DC, Baharuddin MFT (2012) Integral analysis of geoelectrical (resistivity) and geotechnical (SPT) data in slope stability. Assess Acad J Sci 1:305–316
Adepelumi AA, Ako BD, Ajayi TR, Afolabi O, Omotoso EJ (2009) Delineation of saltwater intrusion into the freshwater aquifer of Lekki Peninsula, Lagos, Nigeria. Environ Geol 56(5):927–933. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-008-1194-3
Alabjah B, Amraoui F, Chibout M, Slimani M (2018) Assessment of saltwater contamination extent in the coastal aquifers of Chaouia (Morocco) using the electric recognition. J Hydrol 566:363–376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.09.003
Almalki H, El-Werr A, Abdel-Rahman K (2011) Estimation of near-surface geotechnical parameters using seismic measurements at the proposed KACST expansion site, Riyadh, KSA. Arab J Geosci 4:1131–1150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-010-0124-3
Alshehri F, Almadani S, El-Sorogy AS, Alwaqdani E, Alfaifi HJ, Alharbi T (2021) Influence of seawater intrusion and heavy metals contamination on groundwater quality Red Sea coast, Saudi Arabia. Mar Pollut Bull 165:112094. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112094
Archie GE (1942) The electrical resistivity log as an aid in determining some reservoir characteristics. Soc Petrol Eng 146(1):54–61. https://doi.org/10.2118/942054-G
Atwa SMM (1979) Hydrogeology and hydro geochemistry of the western coast of Egypt. Ph.D. Thesis, Fac Sci, Alex Univ, Egypt
Baharuddin MFT, Taib S, Hashim R, Abidin MHZ, Ishak MF (2011) Time-lapse resistivity investigation of salinity changes at an ex-promontory land: a case study of Carey Island, Selangor, Malaysia. Environ Monit Assess 180:345–369. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1792-x
Baniela FF, Arias D, Ordóñez RA (2021) Seismic refraction and electrical resistivity tomographies for geotechnical site characterization of two water reservoirs (El Hierro, Spain). Near Surf Geophys 19:199–223. https://doi.org/10.1002/nsg.12152
BAPETCO “Bader Petroleum Company” (2007): Generalized litho-stratigraphic column of western desert. Internal report
Basheer AA, Salama NS (2022) Application of ERT and SSR for geotechnical site characterization: a case study for resort assessment in New El Alamein City, Egypt. NRIAG J Astron Geophys 11(1):58–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/20909977.2021.2023999
Basheer AA, Atya MA, Shokri M, Abu Shady MM (2013) Application of ERT and SSR to detect the subsurface cave at 15th May City Helwan, Egypt. NRIAG J Astron Geophys 1(1):23–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nrjag.2012.11.003
Basheer AA, Taha AI, Mansour KQ, Khalil A, Rabeh T (2014) Assessment of the saline-water intrusion through the fresh groundwater aquifer by using ER and TEM methods at the Qantara Shark Area, Sinai Peninsula, Egypt. Int J Innovative Res Dev 3(4):398–406
Basu D, Salgado R, Prezzi M (2008) Analysis of laterally loaded piles in multilayered soil deposits. Joint Transport Res Program 23:330. https://doi.org/10.5703/1288284313454
Bolt BA (1982) Inside the earth: evidence from earthquakes. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, USA
Bowles JE (1982) Foundation analysis and design, 2nd edn. McGraw-Hill International Book Company, London
Bowles JE (1984) Physical and geotechnical properties of soils. Mc Graw-Hill, London
Butzer KW (1960) On the Pleistocene shorelines of Arabs’ Gulf. J Geol 68:626–637
Clayton CRI, Matthews MC, Simons NE (1995) Site Investigation, 2nd edn. Blackwell Science Ltd
Comina C, Mandrone G, Arato A, Chicco J, Duò E, Vacha D (2021) Preliminary analyses of an innovative soil improving system by sand/gravel injections–Geotechnical and geophysical characterization of a first test site. Eng Geol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2021.106278
Edwards JT, Hillel AJ (1977) The electrical resistivity of G. P. zones. J Theor Exp Appl Phys 35(5):1221–1229. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786437708232948
Eissa MS, Mahmoud HH, Orfan SS (2016) Geophysical and geochemical studies to delineate seawater intrusion in Bagoush Area, Northwestern coast, Egypt. Afr Earth Sci 121:365–381
El-Sayed HM, Abdel Zaher M, Soliman SA, Mohamaden MII (2021) Geophysical investigation for sustainable development at Alamein Area, Northwestern Coast, Egypt. Egypt J Aquat Res 47:45–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejar.2020.07.002
El-sayed HM, Mohamaden MII (2018) Application of resistivity method for groundwater exploration in Barrani-Salum Sector, Northwestern Coast, Egypt. J Egypt Geophys Soc 15(1):59–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejbas.2016.10.003
El-Sharabi ES (2000) Hydrogeological, Geomorphological and Geoenvironmental Implications for Future Sustainable Development of the Northwestern Coastal Zone of Egypt. Ph. D. Thesis, Mansoura University
Al-Fahdawi, Salah Sj (2000) The Use of Seismic Refraction and CrossHole Methods for Geotechnical Evaluation of Engineering Site in Al-Madain Archaeological Area—South Baghdad. Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis, Collage of Science, Baghdad University
Fukue M, Minato T, Horibe H, Taya N (1999) The microstructures of clay given by resistivity measurements. Eng Geol 54(1–2):43–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(99)00060-5
Goebel M, Pidlisecky A, Knight R (2017) Resistivity imaging reveals complex pattern of saltwater intrusion along Monterey coast. J Hydrol 551:746–755. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2017.02.037
Gordon J, Gillespie D, Potter J, Frantzis A, Simmonds MP, Swift R, Thompson D (2003) A review of the effects of seismic surveys on marine mammals. Mar Technol Soc J 37(4):16–34. https://doi.org/10.4031/002533203787536998
Gretener P (2003) Summary of the Poisson’s Ratio debate 1990–2003. Feature Article, CSEG Recorder 28(7):44-45
Griffiths DH, Barker RD (1993) Two-dimensional resistivity imaging and modeling in areas of complex geology. J Appl Geophys 29:211–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/0926-9851(93)90005-J
Gupta BK, Basu D (2017) Analysis of laterally loaded short and long piles in multilayered heterogeneous elastic soil. Soils Found 57(1):92–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2017.01.007
Gupta SC, Hanks RJ (1972) Influence of water content on electrical conductivity of the soil. Proc Soil Sci Soci Am 36(6):855–857. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1972.03615995003600060011x
Hammad FA (1966) The geology of water supplies in Ras El Hekma area. M. Sc. Thesis, Fac. Sci., Cairo University
Hammad FA (1972) The Geology of soils and water resources in the area between Ras El Hikma and Ras Alam El-Rum (Western Mediterranean Coast Zone, Egypt. Ph.D. thesis, Faculty of Science, Cairo University
Hewaidy AA, El-Motaal EA, Sultan SA, Ramdan TA, El Khafif AA, Soliman SA (2015) Groundwater exploration using resistivity and magnetic data at the northwestern part of the Gulf of Suez, Egypt. Egypt J Petrol 24(3):255–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2015.07.010
Hilmy ME, El Shazly MM, Korany EA (1978) Lithostratigraphy and petrology of the miocene and post-miocene sediments in Borg El Arab-El Dabaa area. Desert Inst Bull Egypt 28(1):1–42
Imai S (1975) An investigation to geophysical prospecting for civil purposes. OYO Co-operation, Tokyo, Japan
Kalinski RJ, Kelly WE (1993) Estimating water content of soils from electrical resistivity. Geotech Test J 16(3):323–329. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ10053J
Kazakis N, Pavlou A, Vargemezis G, Voudouris KS, Soulios G, Pliakas F, Tsokas G (2016) Seawater intrusion mapping using electrical resistivity tomography and hydrochemical data. An application in the coastal area of eastern Thermaikos Gulf, Greece. Sci Total Environ 543:373–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.11.041
Kearey P, Brooks M, Hill I (2002) An introduction to geophysical exploration, 3rd edn. Blackwell Science Ltd
Kouzana L, Benassi R (2010) Geophysical and hydrochemical study of the seawater intrusion in Mediterranean semi arid zones. Case of the Korba coastal aquifer (Cap-Bon, Tunisia). J Afr Earth Sci 58(2):242–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2010.03.005
Le Pichon X, Şengör AC, İmren C (2019) A new approach to the opening of the eastern Mediterranean Sea and the origin of the Hellenic Subduction Zone. Part 1: the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Can J Earth Sci 56(11):1119–1143. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjes-2018-0128
Loke MH, Barker RD (1996) Rapid least-squares inversion of apparent resistivity pseudo sections by a quasiNewton method. Geophys Prospect 44:131–152
Loke MH (2001) Electrical imaging surveys for environmental and engineering studies. A practical guide to 2-D and 3-D surveys. RES2DINV manual, IRIS instruments. www.iris-instruments.com
Lowrie W (2007) Fundamentals of Geophysics, 2nd edn. New York, Cambridge University Press, The United States of America
Ma T, Zhang Z (2015) Topography-dependent eikonal travel time tomography for upper crustal structure beneath an irregular surface. Pure Appl Geophys 172(6):1511–1529. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-014-0984-7
Massarsch KR, Wersäll C, Fellenius BH (2021) Liquefaction induced by deep vertical vibratory compaction. Proc Inst Civil Eng Ground Improv 174(3):194–205. https://doi.org/10.1680/jgrim.19.00018
Massoud U, Soliman M, Taha A, Khozym A, Salah H (2015) 1D and 3D inversion of VES data to outline a freshwater zone floating over saline water body at the north western coast of Egypt. NRIAG J Astron Geophys 4(2):283–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nrjag.2015.11.001
McCarter WJ (1984) The electrical resistivity characteristics of compacted clays. Géotechnique 34(2):263–267. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1984.34.2.263
McInnis D, Silliman S, Boukari M, Yalo N, Orou-Pete S, Fertenbaugh C, Fayomi H (2013) Combined application of electrical resistivity and shallow groundwater sampling to assess salinity in a shallow coastal aquifer in Benin, West Africa. J Hydrol 505:335–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.10.014
Meyerhof GG (1956) Penetration test and bearing capacity of cohesionless soils. J Soil Mech Found Divis ASCE 82:1–19. https://doi.org/10.1061/JSFEAQ.0000001
Milsom J (2003) Field geophysics, 3rd edn. Wiley, New York
Misak RF (1974) Geomorphology and geology of the area between El Dabaʼa and Ras El-Hekma, Western Mediterranean coastal zone, Egypt, M.Sc. Thesis, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University
Mohamaden MII, Wahaballa A, El-Sayed HM (2016) Application of electrical resistivity prospecting in waste-water management: a case study Kharga Oasis, Egypt. Egypt J Aquat Res 42:33–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejar.2016.01.001
Munoz-Castelblanco JA, Pereira JM, Delage P, Cui YJ (2012) The influence of changes in water content on the electrical resistivity of a natural unsaturated loess. Geotech Test J 35(1):11–17. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ103587
Nowroozi AA, Horrocks SB, Henderson P (1999) Saltwater intrusion into the freshwater aquifer in the eastern shore of Virginia: a reconnaissance electrical resistivity survey. J Appl Geophys 42(1):1–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0926-9851(99)00004-X
Othman AAA (2005) Construed geotechnical characteristics of foundation beds by seismic measurements. J Geophys Eng 2(2):10–11. https://doi.org/10.1088/17422132/2/2/007
Parry RHC (1977) Estimating the bearing capacity of sand from SPT values. JGED, ASCE 103(9):1013–1045. https://doi.org/10.1061/AJGEB6.0000484
Rai SN, Thiagarajan S, Kumar D, Dubey KM, Rai PK, Ramachandran A, Nithya B (2013) Electrical resistivity tomography for groundwater exploration in a granitic terrain in NGRI campus. Curr Sci 105(10):1410–1418
Rao GVVS, Rao TG, Surinaidu L, Rajesh R, Mahesh J (2011) Geophysical and geochemical approach for seawater intrusion assessment in the Godavari Delta Basin, A.P., India. Water Air Soil Pollut 217:503–514. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-010-0604-9
Raslan SM (1995) Geomorphological and hydrogeological studies on some localities along the North-western Coast of Egypt. M. Sc. Thesis, Faculty of Science, Menoufia University
Ray R, Kumar D, Samui P, Roy LB, Goh ATC, Zhang W (2021) Application of soft computing techniques for shallow foundation reliability in geotechnical engineering. Geosci Front 12:375–383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2020.05.003
Reynolds JM (2011) An introduction to applied and environmental geophysics, 2nd edn. Wiley
Royden LH, Papanikolaou DJ (2011) Slab segmentation and late Cenozoic disruption of the Hellenic arc. Geochem Geophys Geosyst 12(3):1–24. https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GC003280
Said R (1962) The geology of Egypt. Elsevier Pub. Co., Amsterdam and New York
Said R (1990) The geology of Egypt. Balkema-Rotterdam-Brook field, USA
Sakanann V, Puttiwongrak A, Suteerasak T, Koedsin W (2020) Delineation of seawater intrusion using geo-electrical survey in a Coastal Aquifer of Kamala Beach, Phuket, Thailand. Water 12(2):506. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020506
Sakr MA, Omar AE, Saad AM, Moayedi H (2021) Geotechnical parameters modelling and the radiation safety of expansive clayey soil treated with waste marble powder. A case study at west Gulf of Suez, Egypt. Environ Earth Sci 80(7):1–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09573-y
Salem H (1990) The theoretical and practical study of petrophysical, electric and elastic parameters of sediments, Germany. Kiel Insitut for Geophysik. Ph.D. thesis
Satheeskumar V, Subramani T, Lakshumanan C, Roy PD, Karunanidhi D (2021) Groundwater chemistry and demarcation of seawater intrusion zones in the Thamirabarani delta of south India based on geochemical signatures. Environ Geochem Health 43(2):757–770. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00536-z
Seed HB, De Alba P (1986) Use of SPT and CPT tests for evaluating the liquefaction resistance of sands. Blacksburg: 281–302.
Seed HB, Idriss IM (1982) Ground motions and soil liquefaction during earthquakes. Earthquake Engineering Research Institute Monograph, Oakland, California
Shata A (1957) Geology and geomorphology of the Wadi El Kharruba area, Western Desert, Mediterranean littoral, Matrouh District, Egypt. Bull Inst Desert d’ Egypt 10:91–120
Shata AA (1971) The geomorphology, pedology, and hydrogeology of the Mediterranean coastal desert of the U. A. R. in geology of Libya, proc. In: Gray C (ed) Proceedings of the symposium on the geology of Libya, University of Libya, Tripoli 431–446
Sheriff RE (1991) Encyclopedic dictionary of exploration geophysics, 3rd edn. Society of Exploration Geophysicists
Shipton B, Coop MR (2015) Transitional behaviour in sands with plastic and non-plastic fines. Soils Found 55(1):1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2014.12.001
Shukri NM, Philip G, Said R (1956) The geology of the Mediterranean coast between Rosetta and Bardia. Part II: Pleistocene sediments; geomorphology and microfacies. Bull Inst Egypt 37(2):395–427
Sjogren B (1984) Shallow refraction seismic. Chapman and Hall, London
Stapelfeldt M, Bienen B, Grabe J (2021) Influence of low-permeability layers on the installation and the response to vertical cyclic loading of suction caissons. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 147(8):04021076. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0002522
Stumpel H, Kahler S, Meissner R, Milkerei B (1984) The use of seismic shear waves and compressional waves for lithological problems of shallow sediments. Geoph Pros 32:660–675. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2478.1984.tb01712.x
Sultan N, Halim A. (1988) Tectonic framework of northern Western Desert, Egypt, and its effect on hydrocarbon accumulations. In: EGPC 9th Exploration Conference. Cairo, Egypt
Telford WM, Geldart LP, Sheriff RE (1990a) Applied geophysics. Cambridge University Press
Telford WM, Geldart LP, Sheriff RE (1990b) Resistivity Methods, In: Applied geophysics, 2nd Edn. Cambridge Univ Press, Cambridge
Terzaghi K (1943) Theoretical soil mechanics. John Weller and sons, Inc., London
Thomsen L (1986) Weak elastic anisotropy. Geophysics 51:1954–1966
Xayacvong V, Vu MD, Nguyen DA, Vu TM, Do CA, Pham LT, Eldosouky AM (2022) Application of the electrical resistivity tomography and seismic refraction methods for groundwater investigation in Savannakhet Province, Laos. Front Sci Res Technol 3(1):62–69
Yan M, Miao L, Cui Y (2012) Electrical resistivity features of compacted expansive soils. Mar Georesour Geotechnol 30(2):167–179. https://doi.org/10.1080/1064119X.2011.602384
Yousif M, El Abd S, Baraka A (2013) Assessment of water resources in some drainage basins, northwestern coast, Egypt. Appl Water Sci 3:439–452. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-013-0093-2
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Dr. Nihal Adel, assistant professor in English, Department of English—Faculty of Al-Alsun—Minia University, Egypt for her grammatical and linguistic review of the manuscript research.
Funding
Open access funding provided by The Science, Technology & Innovation Funding Authority (STDF) in cooperation with The Egyptian Knowledge Bank (EKB).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Data analysis, Software, Data curation, Investigation, and writing the original draft were performed by MQ. Supervision, revision, writing, and editing the manuscript by AME. Revision and Supervision by SAS. Idea, Data curation, Supervision by AAB. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Competing interests
Authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Consent for publication
All the authors agree to the submission and publication (if accepted) of this manuscript in the Geomechanics and Geophysics for Geo-Energy and GeoResources. Authors declare that the work in this study is original research that has not been published previously and is not under consideration for publication elsewhere, in whole or in part.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Qaher, M., Eldosouky, A.M., Saada, S.A. et al. Integration of ERT and shallow seismic refraction for geotechnical investigation on El-Alamein Hotel Building Area, El-Alamein new city, Egypt. Geomech. Geophys. Geo-energ. Geo-resour. 9, 115 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40948-023-00639-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40948-023-00639-8