Background

Beginning in the early spring of 2020, the USA and many nations around the world experienced an unprecedented series of closures and shelter-in-place orders in an attempt to stifle the spread of COVID-19. As a result, many caregivers have to balance child care, work responsibilities, supporting their children’s educational needs, and providing technology support to enable access to new modes of learning. During the period of school closures, many parents expressed concerns regarding changes in their children’s behavior, including increased fears, stress, and confusion. In addition, parents and families themselves experienced increased stress, anxiety, and a sense of burden brought on by the myriad of changes associated with the pandemic. For educators, COVID-19 also presented a number of challenges, including the transfer to online learning and associated technological difficulties, addressing the academic and social-emotional needs of their students, and general concerns about their own and their students’ physical and mental health (Anderson et al., 2021; Duraku & Hoxa, 2020).

With the advent of COVID-19-related school closures, school psychologists who, historically, are the liaisons between students’ home and school lives faced the challenges of supporting students’ abilities to learn, teachers’ abilities to teach, and parents’ skills in supporting their children’s learning in an entirely different context. In many ways, interventions to improve social-emotional functioning were, and are, more urgently needed than ever. Given the often sudden transitions in schooling which took place, educators, clinicians, and families discovered the importance of adaptability in carrying out these interventions. The use of mindfulness represents one potential mechanism for bridging social-emotional learning between home and school.

For the purposes of this publication, we searched for research articles and book chapters using the following search terms “mindfulness in schools,” “parenting mindfulness,” “mindfulness for teachers,” and “mindfulness interventions for children/adolescents.” We also included coverage of some specific therapies incorporating mindfulness such as “Acceptance and Commitment Therapy.” Although dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) incorporates mindfulness skills as a component of treatment, we did not include articles that focused on this therapy since it is a more specialized approach requiring systematic training that is applied in clinical, rather than school, settings. With respect to search platforms, we utilized Academic Search Premier, APA PsycArticles, APA PsycBooks, CINAHL EBSCO, ERIC, and MEDLINE. The above parameters were used to guide the theoretical background of this manuscript as well as the review of research literature. In addition, for the literature review, we primarily included reviews, meta-analyses, and original empirical studies that involved quantitative or mixed methods designs. Qualitative-only research was included for certain subtopics of mindfulness (e.g., online school-based programs) to expand understanding of setting and contextual factors that can influence implementation and effectiveness.

Many reviews and descriptions of mindfulness emphasize that it is something that can be fostered through the practice of formal and informal techniques. According to Kabat-Zinn (1990), mindfulness is awareness that comes from paying attention in the present moment with intention and nonjudgment to the unfolding of experiences. Mindfulness meditation is a technique that is used to deliberately pay attention to the present moment with acceptance, exclusive of judgment. Kabat-Zinn and colleagues at the Center for Mindfulness at the University of Massachusetts Medical School were the first to mainstream mindfulness by creating a structured program, Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR). MBSR is an 8-week outpatient course, meant to serve as an educational vehicle through which people can assume a degree of responsibility for their own well-being and health by developing their innate abilities for paying attention and for understanding connections between different aspects of their experiences (Kabat-Zinn, 1990).

While Kabat-Zinn’s definition of mindfulness is one of the most well-known, other definitions have also emerged. Davis and Hayes (2012) define mindfulness as “a moment-to-moment awareness of one’s experience without judgment” and as a state that is promoted by certain activities, such as meditation, though it is not equivalent to or synonymous with them. Although mindfulness practices and research first originated with adult populations, they have become more widely implemented among children and adolescents, including clinical and non-clinical populations. The concept and essential tenets of mindfulness are consistent regardless of the age of individuals who are practicing it. However, for purposes of teaching mindfulness to children and youth, the basic definitions might be altered to enhance developmental appropriateness. One such definition is that provided by Dr. Amy Saltzman, the author of A Still Quiet Place (2014), who describes mindfulness as “the practice of paying attention here and now, with kindness and curiosity, so that we can choose our behavior.” Saltzman emphasizes the importance of implementing mindfulness in gradual steps, first beginning with small activities, and then gradually learning how to utilize practice for extreme circumstances that will develop with increased reinforcement and repetition and facilitate one’s P.E.A.C.E., an acronym that stands for pause, exhale, acknowledge (accept and allow), choose, and engage (Saltzman, 2010).

The research literature is often focused on mindfulness that is developed through mindfulness meditation, which consists of self-regulation practices that involve increasing attention and awareness to bring general mental processes under greater voluntary control and, thus, generate improved mental well-being and the development of specific capacities, such as calmness, clarity, and concentration. (Walsh & Shapiro, 2006). In their review of mindfulness research, Davis and Hayes (2012) provided ample evidence for the positive effects of mindfulness meditation including reduced rumination (Chambers et al., 2008), stress reduction (Hofman et al., 2010), increased working memory (Jha et al., 2010), increased cognitive flexibility and attentional functioning (Cahn & Polich, 2006; Moore & Malinowski, 2009 Siegel, 2007a), reduced emotional reactivity (Ortner et al., 2007), and increased information processing speeds (Moore & Malinowski, 2009). Additionally, researchers have identified several health benefits such as improved immune functioning (Grossman et al., 2004).

Following the initial positive outcomes of MBSR with patients with chronic pain, the program has been adapted and applied with a variety of populations, including individuals with insomnia (Chen et al., 2020), cancer patients (Ledesma & Kumano, 2009), women experiencing menopause (Chen et al., 2021), people with GAD (Hoge et al., 2017), military veterans (Goldberg et al., 2020), and healthcare professionals (Spinelli et al., 2019). Although MBSR is a structured program with specific mindfulness components, Toniolo-Barrios and Pitt (2021) noted that mindfulness can be practiced through a variety of techniques, and individuals do not need to engage in a specific technique in order to cultivate mindfulness. In addition, there is no set duration one should meditate for; this often depends on how comfortable one feels in a practice and the nature of the practice itself. Many mindfulness techniques, such as body scans, grounding exercise, attending to breathing, and mindful check-ins can be done in minutes (Toniolo-Barrios & Pitt). Farris et al. (2021) assessed the impact of online mindfulness on psychological distress and found that one 15-min online mindfulness session was effective in decreasing momentary anxiety, stress, and COVID-19 concerns.

It is important to note that, beyond MBSR, there are other both structured and unstructured approaches that incorporate mindfulness. For example, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT; Hayes et al.,1999) is a psychotherapeutic approach that seeks to enhance mindfulness as one of its core goals. ACT involves the core processes of (a) maintaining attentive awareness to the present moment, (b) accepting uncomfortable experiences, (c) maintaining a broader perspective (self-as-context) in the midst of uncomfortable thoughts and feelings, (d) gently experiencing uncomfortable thoughts and feelings without becoming bound to them (defusion), (e) maintaining contact with one’s deeper priorities (values), and (f) continuing to take steps toward true life values despite setbacks or uncomfortable thoughts and feelings (committed action), with an overall goal of increasing psychological flexibility (Rogge & Daks, 2021). Although ACT is not formally rooted in mindfulness meditation training or practice, its targeted skills are similar to those outlined in the mindfulness literature. These skills represent aspects of the open-hearted, non-judgmental, and non-reactive framework that allows individuals to step back from their experiences and view them with acceptance as processes involved in cultivating well-being and mindfulness (Rogge & Daks).

Another example of a specific therapeutic approach involving mindfulness is mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT; Segal et al., 2002). MBCT, which was developed as a skill-based treatment to help individuals with repeated depressive episodes and/or chronic unhappiness, is an approach that combines the underlying frameworks of MBSR and CBT. It aims to help individuals experiencing depression and/or intense negative affect to recognize and disengage from mind states characterized by patterns of ruminative, negative thoughts during times of potential relapse or negative affect. Thus, MBCT serves as a preventative approach; it involves understanding and prevention of relapse of depressive episodes through the use of feedback loops that circumvent negative cycles, including automatic thought patterns. The core framework of MBCT involves diverting from a focus on negative thoughts and trying to change their content to a focus on processes, such as intentional use of attention and awareness of experiences. By learning to switch out of “automatic pilot” and bringing awareness to the present moment, individuals begin to recognize they have choices and autonomy regarding their negative affect, which is often the prerequisite for taking care of oneself differently in the face of negative experience (Segal et al., 2018).

School-based mindfulness for children and adolescents have gained a solid foothold in recent research. Mindfulness has become increasingly common in schools, with application across a range of issues, including autism-related difficulties, ADHD, and anxiety (Semple et al., 2017). In addition, mindfulness is becoming well integrated into social-emotional curricula that are delivered on a school-wide basis to students, both with and without special needs. Similarly, mindfulness for parents has continued to grow with respect to both research and practice. While mindfulness for parents can refer to a variety of strategies and practices, the construct of “mindful parenting” has been described as a mechanism by which parents bring present awareness, including emotional awareness, non-judgmental acceptance, and compassion to their relationships with their children (Duncan et al., 2009). Research has found that mindful parenting is associated with a variety of positive outcomes for parents and children alike, including more positive interactions, better behavior management, reduced behavior problems, and greater parental well-being (Bögels et al., 2014; Coatsworth et al., 2015; Rutherford et al., 2015).

The expanded application of mindfulness in schools and other contexts, coupled with the myriad of changes associated with COVID-19, presents an opportunity to bring these practices into remote education. The purpose of this article is to present a foundation that integrates school-based and parenting mindfulness interventions within the context of online and other tech-based resources and tools to foster self-regulation and resilience in parents, children, and educators during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic. We begin with a review of literature focusing on school-based mindfulness and mindfulness with parents followed by a discussion of practical implications for school psychologists, students, and parents, including the use of online resources.

Literature Review

Review of School-Based Mindfulness-Programs and Interventions for Students

During the height of COVID-19, students faced challenges that significantly impacted their participation and attitudes towards education and their social and emotional well-being. Styck et al. (2021) explored elementary, middle, and high school students’ reports of stress associated with the coronavirus pandemic and found that it created novel stressors for youth related to schoolwork, fear of illness social isolation, and missing important events.

Mindfulness interventions are useful in addressing a wide range of problems (e.g., depression, anxiety, ADHD behaviors). While many clinical, and some school-based, research studies have looked at outcomes for specific problems such as these, it is important to note that mindfulness has become increasingly utilized as part of school-wide social-emotional learning and curricula. Examples include, but are not limited to, Mindful Schools (Brensilver et al., 2020), MindUP (The Hawn Foundation, 2011), A Still Quiet Place (Saltzman, 2014), the Mindfulness Curriculum (Smiling Mind, 2021), and Learning to Breathe (Broderick, 2013). The specific components of these programs vary, but they all incorporate practices to reduce stress and enhance social-emotional skills and self-regulation through increasing attention and self-awareness. While a systematic review of the aforementioned curricula is beyond the scope of this manuscript, all of them have at least some degree of empirical support with positive psychosocial outcomes.

Thus, mindfulness can be viewed not just as an intervention to target specific areas of difficulty, but also as a general approach to facilitate healthy social-emotional development (Ritter & Alvarez, 2020; Schonert-Reichl et al., 2015). Meiklejohn et al. (2012) reviewed literature on mindfulness in schools and noted positive outcomes across several studies, including improvements in attention (Bogels et al., 2008; Semple et al., 2009), reductions in anxiety and problem behavior (Biegel et al., 2009; Sibinga et al., 2011; Zylowska et al., 2008), and reduced stress and enhanced well-being (Jain et al., 2007). Similarly, Semple, Droutman & Reid (2016) conducted a review of 10 mindfulness programs in K-12 schools. For each, they found positive effects ranging from improved grades, increased attention and awareness, more regulated responses to stress, and improved school climate to decreased social and aggression problems and reductions in behavioral referrals and incidents of violence and bullying. Notably, research by Mendelson and colleagues (2010) highlighted enhanced self-regulatory capacities and reduction of activation and persistent or ruminative thoughts as mechanisms underlying the positive outcomes of mindfulness for youth. In a more recent review, McKeering and Hwang (2019), focusing specifically on younger adolescents, found that the majority of studies yielded some positive results, though some targeted areas did not significantly change as a result of mindfulness interventions. Sciutto et al.’s research (2021), in one of the few studies that examined mindfulness in a younger elementary student population (grades K-2), used a quasi-experimental design with a delayed intervention control group. Their results indicated that the mindfulness program was linked to improvements in externalizing and internalizing problems as rated by teachers, with no significant differences related to race/ethnicity or gender, but greater change for students in grades 1 and 2 as compared to kindergarten.

Some limitations noted from the above reviews of mindfulness include small sample sizes, use of non-experimental research designs, and a lack of well-validated measures for assessing some outcomes. Despite these limitations, Flook et al. (2015) denote that mindfulness-based training shows promise as an accessible, cost-effective, universal preventative approach to promote youth well-being and prosocial behaviors while subsequently setting children on a positive trajectory for ongoing development.

Waters et al. (2015) carried out a systematic review of the effects of meditation intervention in schools, including both quantitative and qualitative studies. They found that the effects of meditation go above and beyond simply unplugging or engaging in restful activity. For their review of 15 peer-reviewed studies, they found 76 results where effect sizes could be calculated, and 61% of these effect sizes were statistically significant. This review covered student outcomes for three main areas: well-being, academic achievement, and social competence. Waters et al. found that, for results related to well-being, 9 studies generated 17 results, with 59% of these being significant. The most consistent results for this domain tended to involve reduction of negative effects (e.g., negative affect), rather than increases in positive ones (e.g., optimism, positive affect). For social competence, Waters et al. found 6 studies covering 776 students, with 33% showing significant effect sizes. They reported that the majority of the effects sizes for mindfulness and social competence were small, with the strongest results for teacher-rated social behaviors. Lastly, Waters et al. noted that, when it comes to looking at the effects of mindfulness interventions on academic achievement, research is scarce. With the few studies where effect sizes could be calculated, 50% of these were large, 25% were medium, and 25% were small.

In one of the most recent systematic reviews of outcome research/evidence for school mindfulness interventions, Phan et al. (2022) looked at peer-reviewed journals and found a total of 77 studies covering over 12,000 students carried out in multiple nations in K-12 schools. The review included multiple therapeutic models, but excluded studies that focused solely on yoga or creative approaches (e.g., mindfulness-based art). Phan et al. used a specific coding system following evidence-based guidelines to rate the quality of these studies. For studies with the highest quality evidence (considered “A grade”), results indicated that mindfulness-based school interventions (MBSIs) increased prosocial behaviors, executive functioning skills, resilience, attention, and mindful awareness, and decreased anxiety, attention problems/ADHD behaviors, and conduct problems. The A grade research showed mixed results with respect to the effects of MBSIs on well-being and null effects when it comes depression symptoms. Based upon this review, Phan el al. emphasized both the promise of school-based mindfulness interventions as well as the need for more rigorous research designs to study their effectiveness.

As mindfulness approaches, especially school-wide approaches, continue to expand in educational settings, it is also critical to further investigate and understand the role of moderators, mediators, and implementation factors, all of which can help determine who most benefits from mindfulness. Tudor et al. (2022) conducted a wide-scale review of these factors in studies with adolescents where school-wide mindfulness was implemented. This review indicated that, with respect to moderation, while a number of studies have examined some key variables (e.g., gender, personality features), current research and educational policies might fail to capture the more nuanced direct and indirect effects that take place through school-wide mindfulness. Furthermore, it is important to examine moderating school factors (e.g., urbanity), which are often understudied. With respect to mediation and implementation factors, Tudor et al. noted that many studies do not fully capture mechanisms of change or examine key aspects of executing mindfulness in schools, such as program fidelity. Based upon this review, Tudor et al., in alignment with other reviewers of school-based mindfulness, describe such training for adolescents as a nascent area of intervention warranting not just more extensive, but also more refined, research.

Review of School-Based Mindfulness-Interventions/Programs for Teachers

Educators experienced ample stress in their roles prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, often facing them with less than sufficient resources. The circumstances and effects created by COVID-19 including remote instruction, loss of connection to colleagues, reduced self-efficacy, and increased levels of compassion fatigue, left many teachers feeling anxious, confused, insecure, and overloaded (An et al., 2021; Green & Bettini, 2020). The shift to online teaching and instruction, in particular, posed a significant challenge for many educators, even those who already had experience with using technology in their classrooms. Levels of knowledge and skill in applying technology, access to technology resources and support, and degree of isolation at home have all been cited as key factors influencing teachers’ success in use of technology during COVID-19 (Schleicher, 2020). In addition, psychological (e.g., pre-COVID-19 stress levels, sense of self-efficacy), interpersonal (e.g., connections to other school personnel), and organizational (e.g., general working conditions, school culture) factors are known to influence teachers’ adaptation to educational changes, such as those brought on by the pandemic (Wettstein et al., 2021). Even prior to COVID-19, high levels of teacher stress and burnout, and the trickle-down effects in the classroom had been highlighted by a number of researchers (e.g., Herman et al., 2018). In short, teachers already felt overwhelmed and exhausted and perceived many aspects of their jobs negatively before our current health crisis, which has prompted a call to action and initiatives to improve teacher’s mental health and well-being.

Mindfulness as an intervention for reducing job stress and increasing attention and engagement at work has been studied in a variety of populations (e.g., health care workers). In a randomized controlled trial that looked at the effects of MBSR in healthy adult participants working in general office environments, Davidson et al. (2003) demonstrated that an 8-week training in MBSR, with daily practice sessions less than 30 min long, reduced the subjective sense of stress, enhanced the subjective sense of well-being, improved immune function, decreased brain activity in regions associated with negative emotion, and increased activity in regions associated with positive emotions. Although this research did not focus on school personnel, the unparalleled results within a sample of healthy adult participants encourage the exploration of these effects in teacher populations. Increasingly, the effects of mindfulness on teachers and not just students are being investigated. For example, Tsang et al. (2021) conducted a randomized controlled trial to examine the effectiveness of mechanisms of mindfulness training for teachers in Hong Kong. Notably, this study differed from other school mindfulness literature because it was conducted in a non-Westernized society with teachers from primary and secondary schools, whereas much of the school-based mindfulness research involves individuals in Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic societies. Tsang et al. discovered that teachers placed in the 8-week mindfulness training intervention group reported significantly higher levels of life satisfaction, positive affect, general health, and significantly lower levels of insomnia, stress, and negative affect than the control group at post-test and 2-month follow up. Interestingly, they also found that teachers’ baseline well-being moderated the intervention effectiveness, noting that individuals who reported lower-levels of well-being benefited more significantly than those who reported higher well-being at baseline. This study provides evidence that mindfulness training can improve well-being and assist in the socially, emotionally, cognitively, and physically demanding aspects of the teaching profession (Tsang et al.).

In light of the need for positive change for educators who serve in increasingly demanding roles, it is important to note that a number of school-based mindfulness programs not only target students but also teachers and other school personnel, and there is a growing research base examining the effects of mindfulness on teachers. Such programs often seek to develop “mindful teaching,” which involves present moment, non-judgmental awareness of students, self, and the classroom as a whole. Goals for teachers include reduction of stress, increased present-moment awareness and acting with awareness, and enhancement of self-efficacy and well-being. In a review of studies covering teaching of mindfulness to teachers, Emerson et al. (2017) found that, while the quality of research varied, interventions tended to yield favorable outcomes by enhancing teachers’ emotional regulation. Individual studies found positive effects for acting with awareness (e.g., Frank et al., 2015), self-compassion (Beshai et al., 2016), and reduced stress and burnout (Flook et al., 2013). In addition, some research suggests that teachers trained in MBSR have healthier classroom climates when it comes to supporting students’ autonomy (Jennings, 2016).

Mindfulness programs for teachers also strive for application of mindfulness principles and practices in multiple life domains, not just their jobs. The underlying philosophy is that teachers who are mindful in their personal and professional lives will exemplify behaviors and attitudes that have positive effects for themselves and their students. In addition, mindfulness training often provides educators with effective practices and possible solutions to address work-related stress and burnout. For example, Benn et al. (2012) found that a randomized controlled trial of a 5-week mindfulness training (MT) program positively influenced teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs. More specifically, with increased mindfulness, educators perceived that they could more effectively gauge and regulate their reactions to stressful situations in the classroom and feel more efficacious in their teaching competencies.

Meiklejohn et al. (2012) reviewed three mindfulness-based training programs for teachers. The first program, Mindfulness-Based Wellness Education (MBWE) (Poulin et al., 2008), is a 9-week elective course which seeks to enhance teachers’ wellness by facilitating change in their personal and professional identities, reflective practices, visions of teaching, social and emotional competencies, and engagement in teacher education. In a controlled 2-year study, Soloway et al. (2011) found positive effects for this program including increased mindfulness, teacher self-efficacy, and improved physical health ratings. These changes developed through five core themes of teachers’ experiences of the training: (a) personal and professional identities, (b) reflective practice, (c) holistic vision of teaching, (d) social and emotional competence on practicum, and (e) engagement in teacher education.

The Cultivating Awareness and Resilience in Education (CARE) program (the Garrison Institute, n.d.), which is based on a prosocial classroom model, was developed for pre-K-12 teachers and aims to improve: teachers’ overall wellbeing; their effectiveness in providing emotional, behavioral, and instructional support to students; their relationships with students; classroom climate; and students’ prosocial behaviors. The CARE program is flexible, being that it can be presented in several formats, including two, 2-day training sessions; four, 1-day training sessions; and a 5-day intensive retreat. The CARE demonstrates promising results related to improvements in teachers’ levels of mindfulness, well-being, and in using a more autonomy-supportive motivational orientation to better classroom management and maintain supportive relationships with students (Jennings et al., 2013). Thirdly, Stress Management and Relaxation Techniques (SMART) in Education (Cullen, 2012) is a professional development program rooted in MBSR, which includes three main components: (a) concentration, attention, and mindfulness; (b) awareness and understanding of emotions; and (c) empathy and compassion. In reviewing the evidence for these programs, researchers described a number of positive effects for participating educators including improvements in teachers’ mindfulness, self-efficacy, work motivation, and relationships with students and co-workers, as well as decreases in occupational stress. More recently, Matiz et al. (2020) looked at the impact of a mindfulness meditation course on mental health of teachers before and during the COVID-19 outbreak and found that there were significant improvements in anxiety, depression, affective empathy, emotional exhaustion, psychological well-being, interoceptive awareness, positive character traits, and mindfulness levels. These results suggest that mindfulness training can effectively mitigate the psychological negative consequences of the COVID-19 outbreak.

Review of Parenting Mindfulness

As previously noted, COVID-19 not only disrupted the everyday roles and functioning of students and teachers. Parents also experienced increased stress and frustration, with many expressing concerns about the negative impacts of remote learning on their children. Specific concerns included low parental self-confidence in their abilities to support their children’s learning; attempting to engage children in educational activities without appropriate academic support; and navigating difficult child behaviors during at-home learning. In addition, teachers recognized parental stress, noting that they are worried about the potentially adverse impact of remote education on academic progress and psychosocial functioning of both the parent and child (Timmons et al., 2021).

Research on the use of mindfulness as a parenting intervention has continued to expand over the past two decades. For example, Singh and colleagues (2006; 2007) found that 8- or 12-week mindful parenting courses with parents/caregivers of children with autism resulted in increases in parenting satisfaction and decreases in child aggression, noncompliance, and self-injury. Other research with families of children with disabilities has found that mindfulness interventions are effective in improving quality of life in families of children with ASD (Rayan & Ahmad, 2016), and that ACT, which strongly incorporates mindfulness practices, is beneficial in reducing depression and anxiety in parents of children with ASD (Da Paz & Wallander, 2017) and parents of children with ADHD (Singh et al., 2010). In addition, mindfulness has been used successfully as a supplement to traditional parent training in families of children with ADHD, representing a mechanism to improve parental emotional regulation and reduce hostile parenting (Gershy et al., 2017).

In a study focusing on parental stress, Neece et al. (2019) applied MBSR with Latinx and non-Latinx parents of children with developmental delays (DD). Their results showed that MBSR was equally effective for both groups in improving parental mental health, including parenting stress, depressive symptomatology, and life satisfaction, and in reducing parent-reported child behavior problems. Additional empirical support for MBSR as an intervention for parents of children with DD comes from several studies showing decreases in stress and other psychosocial difficulties and improvements in mindfulness awareness, psychological well-being, and self-compassion (Bazzano et al., 2015; Chan & Neece, 2018; Dykens et al., 2014).

Parenting mindfulness has also been studied in families of children without disabilities. For example, Chaplin et al. (2021) conducted a randomized controlled trial of a mindfulness intervention, as compared to general parenting education, in a sample of mothers of 12–17-year old youth. Results indicated that the intervention group demonstrated reductions in two aspects of parenting stress, increased emotional awareness in parenting, improved parent–child relationship quality, and increased mindfulness overall in comparison to the mothers who received parental education. Coatsworth et al. (2015), in a large-scale randomized controlled trial, looked at a strengthening families training program infused with mindfulness for parents of children ages 10–14 years. They found that, compared to parent training alone, the mindfulness-enhanced intervention resulted in stronger and more sustained effects, including higher interpersonal mindfulness and better parent–youth relationship quality, youth behavior management, and parent well-being at post-intervention and 1-year follow-up for both mothers and fathers.

Implications

Shifts in the Roles of School Psychologists During COVID-19

Within the context of changes to the public school landscape due to COVID-19, educators and clinicians had to shift their focus on how to best address students’ needs. Work that had traditionally been accomplished through face-to-face interactions underwent transitions, often sudden and bumpy, to virtual contexts. Ritchie et al. (2021) found that 95% of school psychologists reported their job roles significantly changed during the pandemic, with less time conducting assessments, providing mental health intervention, and report writing, and more time spent on professional development, consultation, advocacy, staff check-ins, and policy/resource preparation. In addition, these school psychologists reported lower rates of job satisfaction and significant decreases in mental health and well-being following role changes from COVID-19 (Ritchie et al., 2021). Such transitions are inevitably stressful; mindfulness training clearly supports adaptive emotional regulation, including the ability to be aware of and express emotions and to modulate the intensity and duration of emotion-related arousal. In addition, previous research with educators suggests that mindfulness practices can increase sense of well-being and self-efficacy, thus exerting indirect positive effects on relationships with students (Meiklejohn et al., 2012).

In his webinar and recent article, Fischer (2020a, 2020b) discussed specific examples and areas of importance when there is a shift in traditional school psychology roles. Central to his discussion is a collaborative problem-solving model that continues to capitalize on effective triads in consultation. As part of this model and in light of shifts to online education and special education services, teleconsultation represents a viable and effective mechanism for functional assessments and helping teachers successfully implement behavioral interventions (Fischer et al., 2017; Machalicek et al., 2009). It is also deemed acceptable by teachers as a way to address consultation needs. While mindfulness in particular has not been researched as part of teleconsultation, it offers promise as both a direct and indirect intervention that can be delivered online to students, parents, teachers, and other school personnel. In addition to the website resources and modifications offered by the curricula and programs described above, some specific online mindfulness protocols have been developed for university students (Gonzalez-Garcia et al., 2021), patients and staff in health care settings (Lee et al., 2020; Raski, 2015), adults and adolescents with depression and other mental health concerns (Durland et al., 2014), and teachers (Dave et al., 2020). Virtual teleconsultation services require school clinicians to be prepared to do the following: (a) problem solve possible technological and environmental interruptions, (b) navigate novel barriers to typical rapport development, and (c) ensure that clients have the space and opportunity to provide clinicians with feedback about teleconsultation practices, specifics of treatment, and evaluation of problems (Fischer, 2020a).

The most notable shift in school psychology roles during COVID-19 undoubtedly involved the need to adopt and even embrace technology, not only as a mechanism of intervention but also as a way of interacting with students, teachers, and parents. With this emphasis, school psychologists and other school personnel found themselves: (a) learning the mechanics of online platforms, (b) problem solving possible technological and environmental interruptions, (c) navigating novel challenges to typical rapport development in the absence of face-to-face interactions, and (d) ensuring that students, teachers, and parents have the space and opportunity to participate and provide feedback regarding telehealth services. While the move to telehealth/teleconsultation was often bumpy for many school personnel, it is clear that online and mobile service options are here to stay and are being incorporated into various aspects of educational and mental health programming. A recent review of teleconsultation by King et al. (2022) found 13 articles, each of which contained empirical studies involving a consultation triad, and where all or part of the services were implemented through some type of technology.

Given the importance of school-based support as the primary form of mental health care for many youth, especially those deemed at risk, it is critical for students to be able to access services virtually (Holland et al., 2021). In addition to utilizing teleconsultation during and following the COVID-19 pandemic, school clinicians can offer online programs and suggest mobile phone applications that have been shown to be effective supplements to in-person interventions, specifically mindfulness training interventions like Mindfulness Daily, the Mindfulness app, Headspace, and Calm applications (Lucas-Thompson et al., 2019), that can impact objective biological stress outcomes, like blood pressure and cortisol levels (Lindsay et al., 2017). Mindfulness skills can be acquired using an individually administered telehealth modality that affords flexibility and convenience for participants. Research conducted by Gluck and Maercker (2011) showed encouraging results, suggesting that mindfulness interventions via telephone or internet are a feasible way to introduce skills to a broad population.

Mindfulness as a direct service to children and youth can be delivered using a variety of technology platforms, and there is preliminary research prior to the pandemic suggesting that this can be useful. Bakosh et al. (2015) conducted an 8-week study using a 10-min per day, audio-guided program based on MBSR and found that pre-recorded daily mindful trainings significantly predicted differences in elementary students’ grades in science and reading and notable improvements in classroom behavior. Ritter and Alvarez (2020) examined the use and effects of Mind Yeti, a program which incorporates video-based mindfulness instruction and short meditative scripts for youth in grades K-8. Their study, which looked at executive functioning pre-post outcomes in 177 students in grades 3–6, found improvements in three of the six executive functioning domains that were measured (emotional control, organization, and cognitive flexibility).

While research on the effects of web-based mindfulness interventions is still in its early stages, some studies show promising results. For example, Farris et al. (2021) studied the effects of a single online mindfulness session among adults during the pandemic. They found that participants perceived the electronic session as helpful, effective for practicing mindfulness, and it resulted in significantly lower levels of anxiety, stress, and COVID-19 concerns, though these variables were only measured in the moments after the session. These results suggest that video-based or electronic application of mindfulness instruction can yield positive outcomes.

Outside of empirical research contexts, school psychologists and other clinicians also looked to adaptations of existing resources, particularly during the height of COVID-19, when almost all educational and mental health services were conducted online. Examples of counseling and therapy resources that can be modified for mindfulness online are provided in Table 1. While some of these resources were not originally developed as mindfulness strategies per se, we briefly describe their potential applications, with modifications as needed, as forms of mindfulness. Examples of mindfulness-based practices that can be delivered remotely as counseling interventions include (a) the five senses exercise, (b) mindful eating, (c) specific guided meditations, (d) mindful coloring, and (e) mindfulness breathing boards (e.g., pictures, diagrams, and/or other materials that students can look at and/or touch as a clinician guides them through breathing activities).

Table 1 Counseling/therapy resources for online mindfulness
Full size table

Modifying Mindfulness for COVID-19 and Beyond

Over the course of COVID-19, many school-based psychologists not only sought to address the needs of their students but also those of parents and families. Parents, in turn, were attempting to meet the academic and psychosocial needs of their children while also navigating their own stressors that had arisen in the new landscape of COVID-19. At the height of the pandemic, several existing mindfulness programs and curricula provided adaptations and resources to involve parents/families and school personnel in their protocols and practices. Examples include Mindful (www.mindful.org), which provides articles about a variety of mindfulness-related topics, guided meditations, and podcasts; MindUP (https://mindup.org/), which provides an activity resource library and on-demand virtual events; and Mindful Schools (https://www.mindfulschools.org/), which offers free live practices, videos, blogs, and other resources for schools and families.

In addition to these core mindfulness practices, school psychologists might find it helpful to explore the use of mindfulness-based apps and websites, which vary with respect to age range, types of activities, and parameters set for control or management by adults. A list, including web links, for mindfulness practices, apps, and websites is provided in Table 2. Many of these resources are available for free. In providing this list, we are not endorsing any program specifically but, instead, offering it as a guide for practitioners who might choose to incorporate mindfulness into their work. In addition, components of mindfulness have been combined with text messaging as an avenue to encourage adolescents to apply strategies that increase attention, awareness, and positive coping in stressful and challenging situations (Lucas-Thompson et al., 2019). While the effects of these phone-based tools have not been extensively researched, preliminary studies suggest that they can be effective in managing and reducing stress (Lindsey et al., 2017). In addition, the facilitation of these mobile/electronic platforms by school based mental health provides youth with flexibility and convenience in accessing mental health resources that might not be otherwise available.

Table 2 Mindfulness apps, practices, and websites
Full size table

Bringing Mindfulness to Teachers and Students

As previously noted, school-based mindfulness is not just for students, and a number of programs have shown at least moderate success in enhancing teachers’ acting with awareness, self-efficacy, and well-being. During the pandemic, as teacher stress increased across multiple domains, the need for psychosocial support for school personnel, as well as the students they serve, grew tremendously. Early research on three illustrative mindfulness-based teacher training initiatives suggests that personal training in mindfulness skills can increase teachers’ sense of well-being and teaching self-efficacy, as well as their ability to manage classroom behavior and establish and maintain supportive relationships with students (Meiklejohn et al., 2012). Furthermore, there is evidence that mindfulness interventions delivered by classroom teachers show substantially more consistent effects than those provided by other instructors, finding positive effects for students, such as improvements in attention and concentration (Schonert-Reichl & Lawlor, 2010). Although classroom-based mindfulness programs were not originally designed in an online format, adaptations are viable, including webinars and/or video lessons to carry out mindfulness at home.

Within a consultation framework, school psychologists can guide teachers in the use of mindfulness activities that are feasible for both in-person or remote classrooms. Examples include breathing exercises using stuffed animals on bellies or the double-sided picture of flower and candle — breathe in scent of flower then flip over paper and breathe out to blow out candle. One activity with coloring of mandalas involves using one set of colors to highlight the inside parts of a mandala, which can represent a child’s inner experiences (e.g., emotions, bodily sensations), and another color or set of colors to highlight the outside parts of a mandala, which can represent the outer world (e.g., the classroom, or other aspects of the physical environment). Any of the above can be applied as opening morning activities or relaxation breaks during the day.

While applications of mindfulness have not been extensively researched within the context of consultation, Felver et al. (2013) provide some groundwork for their use within a tiered model. At tier one, mindfulness strategies can be incorporated within preexisting approaches, such as SEL curricula, or as a stand-alone universal intervention to develop mindful awareness among an entire student body. At tier two, more intensive interventions, such as MBSR or Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), can be delivered in a small-group context to students with targeted needs of support. Lastly, at tier three, mindfulness may be used as a concentrated intervention for individual students with specific high-level needs such as anxiety, depression, and/or more severe behavioral problems.

School psychologists who are practitioners of mindfulness and/or yoga can consult with teachers to initiate mindfulness as a form of self-care. Research supports the value of mindfulness as part of self-care for professionals (Lopez, 2019; Rudaz et al., 2017). It is important to note that mindfulness itself is not just an intervention; it represents a shift in how individuals relate to themselves and the world around them. Given this core philosophy, many practitioners as well as researchers argue that mental health professionals should not teach or train others in mindfulness unless they themselves maintain regular mindfulness practice as part of their own lives. Thus, ideally, within the context of effective indirect service delivery, school psychologists who practice mindfulness themselves can train teachers and other school personnel to use mindfulness with their students in their classrooms/educational settings, but this will most likely be effective if consultees themselves become practitioners of mindfulness.

In a qualitative research project with a small sample of elementary teachers from an urban district, one of the current authors conducted online mindfulness sessions following COVID-19 school closures, which took place once per week over a period of 2 ½ months. Interviews indicated that teachers found the sessions helpful and noted increased awareness of their own and others’ emotions and perspectives. Recommendations for future research in this area include (a) providing psychoeducation about what mindfulness is and what it is not; (b) offering choices to teachers about types of mindfulness practices (e.g., combining student and teacher practice vs. teacher only; seated meditations or more active practices); (c) consideration of cultural, religious, and other background factors that might influence openness and receptivity to mindfulness; (d) providing flexible opportunities for practice and considering teachers’ schedules, workload, etc.; and (e) taking into account potential pros (e.g., easy accessibility) and cons (e.g., ensuring privacy with use of technology) for online practices.

Bringing Mindfulness to Parents and Families

As previously described, mindfulness interventions for parents are receiving increased research attention based upon their potential for positive effects across a number of domains. It is important to note, however, that some school-based programs do not directly involve parents/ families as participants and, instead, only communicate about what their children are learning about mindfulness. In addition, much of the research related to mindfulness for parents has been carried out in clinical contexts.

Despite the aforementioned factors, we believe that school psychologists can and should be involved in extending mindfulness programs and strategies to parents and families. This is especially true in light of the increased stress associated with the realities of remote learning and subsequent return to in-person schooling. Mindfulness activities done as a family can be valuable in promoting closeness and connection and in reducing stress. Aside from guiding families in the use of online resources, school psychologists can assist in implementation of practices at home. Some examples of these practices, including brief descriptions, are provided in Table 3. If school psychologists are offering this support to families of students with disabilities who have counseling as part of their IEPs, they can also highlight the linkages between mindfulness practice and increasing emotional regulation for their children. In particular, structured meditation and mindfulness training have been shown to improve emotional regulation and reduce stress, anxiety, and depression, all of which are mental health difficulties highlighted by the COVID-19 pandemic (Vatansever et al., 2021).

Table 3 Mindfulness activities for parents/families and children
Full size table

Another potential role with respect to bringing mindfulness to parents/families involves the promotion of self-care. Eight years prior to COVID-19, Benn et al. (2012) examined a 5-week mindfulness training (MT) program for parents and educators of children with special needs designed to reduce stress and enhance well-being and positive caregiving. Results indicated that, following MT, participants reported reductions in distress; enhanced psychological functioning, as reflected by greater self-compassion and personal growth over time, and enhanced relational competencies, evidenced by more empathic concern and forgiveness for others.

Unsurprisingly, preliminary research shows that parents experienced increased mental health difficulties during COVID-19 (Gassman-Pines et al., 2020), and, while most families are not currently living under quarantine conditions, ongoing stressors remain, including concerns about children’s mental health. Thus, the importance of self-care for parents and families cannot be overemphasized. For some parents/families, school psychologists might represent their first point of contact to introduce mindfulness as a form of self-care, and they can provide resources to reduce stress and promote a sense of safety and stability. These resources, in turn, can enable parents to better address their children’s fears, anxieties, anger, and other challenges that have manifested as a result of COVID-19 (NASP, 2020).

Practical guidelines for self-care in the midst of COVID-19 include maintaining routines and structure, engaging in physical self-care (e.g., getting rest, eating healthy), continuing social connections, and strategies to improve emotional health. The latter can include mindfulness and related practices, such as meditation and yoga. For parents who already engage in some form of mindfulness as self-care, school psychologists can help them maintain practices by providing new online resources, creating online mindfulness communities or groups, and/or helping them adjust practices for the home environment. Given the unique circumstances of COVID-19, parents might have experienced a range of losses, including loss of loved ones who died in the pandemic, loss of social connections and contact, and loss of previous patterns and ways of life. Any type of loss can evoke grief reactions, and there are specific types of mindfulness for grief and loss. The Mindfulness and Grief Institute (mindfulnessandgrief.com) provides meditations, a blog, podcasts and other resources, and some of the apps that are commonly used for mindfulness have specific meditations related to grief.

For parents who have not engaged in mindfulness self-care activities, school psychologists might provide an introductory platform for these practices. In many ways, “mindfulness” has become a buzzword in popular culture, leaving individuals subject to misconceptions and falsities attributed to mindfulness practice. Some of these include that mindfulness is the same as meditation; that it requires full, consistent concentration; that it is not possible to be mindful with a very active mind; and that the practice is religious (University of Southern California, 2021). Psychoeducation about what mindfulness is and what it is not can be useful in reducing misconceptions about mindfulness, shaping parents’ understanding of it, and assessing whether mindful self-care is a good fit for them. Mindfulness as self-care might not be aligned with the values and beliefs of some families, and it is important to note that cultural and background factors will influence receptivity and actual use. In addition, for some parents and caregivers, mindful self-care, or self-care in general, might be regarded as selfish in the time of COVID-19 when so many people are ill, have died, and/or lost loved ones. It is within this context that we would highlight the benefits of mindful self-care and emphasize its connections to compassion for others as well as self-compassion. Benn et al. (2012) found that, following an intensive mindfulness training course, participants demonstrated significant improvements with respect to the following: (a) awareness of and presence to their surroundings, physical sensations, and internal mental processes; (b) descriptions of their moment-to-moment experiences; and (c) reduced self-judgment.

Both mindful compassion and mindful self-compassion not only entail awareness of and openness to suffering but also ways to alleviate suffering by showing kindness to self and others (Tirch et al., 2014). While a full discussion of compassion-focused practices is beyond the scope of this article, we direct readers to the work of Neff and Germer (2018) and Tirch et al. (2014). Practical resources for mindful self-care which parents can be connected to include (a) mindful writing (e.g., https://themindfulnessjournal.com/on-practicing-self-care-even-when-its-hard/). (b) self-care plans (e.g., https://www.mindful.org/a-guide-to-practicing-self-care-with-mindfulness/), and (c) specific practices such as soothing rhythm breathing (https://soundcloud.com/dennis-tirch-phd/soothing-rhythm-breathing). Lastly, the Center for Compassion Focused Therapy has developed a specific COVID-19 webpage with a wide variety of resources that can be utilized by laypeople and professionals alike (http://www.mindfulcompassion.com/covid). It is our hope that these guidelines and resources will be beneficial to school psychologists who are supporting parents and families during COVID-19 and beyond. By enhancing individuals’ capacity for self-awareness, empathic concern, and emotional regulation, mindfulness sets the stage for enhancing relational competence of parents and educators (Benn et al., 2012).

Future Directions

While the research base demonstrating effectiveness of mindfulness for students, teachers, and parents is promising, important work remains before mindfulness approaches are fully adopted as evidence-based practice. Much of previous research has shown that mindfulness interventions are well-received and considered acceptable for various populations. In addition, the shift to online/remote implementation of various mindfulness strategies and initiatives offers a potential forum for increasing their accessibility. Online delivery of mindfulness grants greater flexibility and convenience for many individuals and is potentially more appealing to those who might be hesitant to try practices in person (Niles et al., 2013). In addition, online and remote platforms allow for personalization of mindfulness approaches, which can be carried out synchronously or asynchronously and on an individual or group basis.

The aforementioned benefits are salient and imply that school psychologists and other clinicians have a number of viable mechanisms to implement mindfulness for students, parents, teachers, and other members of school communities. At the same time, it is important to expand investigation of the feasibility and perceptions of mindfulness interventions, especially given the relative scarcity of research focusing on online and remote applications. In addition to assessing attitudes and experiences related to mindfulness, there are a number of other implementation factors to consider. Dariotis et al. (2016) carried out a qualitative exploration of such factors among students and teachers in a school-based mindfulness and yoga program. They were able to identify several key themes including facilitative factors, positive ratings of the program content, and the interpersonal qualities of the yoga instructors. Some common obstacles cited by participants were timing of program activities (i.e., students having to miss different preferred activities due to mindfulness participation), potentially unfavorable conditions in the physical environment (e.g., lack of privacy, noise), and the need for better communication between mindfulness instructors and teachers about program goals and activities, scheduling, and other basic logistics. Teachers highlighted several other key points: (a) their openness to training in mindfulness, particularly if this could be integrated with other job activities; (b) the desire to see students exposed to mindfulness skills in earlier grades and for longer durations; (c) suggestions for participation incentives, including material items and seeing improvements in students’ functioning; (d) the need to adapt mindfulness to different grade levels; and (e) the amount of training required for those experienced in mindfulness versus those who are not.

The degree and specifics of mindfulness training for teachers and other school personnel are also important to consider. Jean-Baptiste (2014) investigated how a small sample of elementary school teachers are introduced and trained for mindfulness programs and their experiences and beliefs regarding implementation of mindfulness in classrooms. According to their results, the teachers believed that training programs should account for previous experiences with mindfulness and years of experience as a teacher. The teachers also emphasized the value of having a whole-child approach to mindfulness where it is integrated across many activities and multiple aspects of school functioning. Obstacles cited by these teachers, particularly with respect to the whole-child approach, include time constraints in the school day and the need for adjustments in activities based upon the cognitive abilities and developmental needs of younger children. Despite these challenges, however, many teachers were enthusiastic about the benefits of mindfulness such as enhanced self-regulation, increased social skills, and improved conflict management. In addition, teachers noted benefits for themselves as well as their students (Jean-Baptiste).

Beyond the factors described above, it is vital to address additional research and practice considerations. For research, there is a lack of consensus regarding appropriate measures to examine the effectiveness of mindfulness interventions, particularly among children. Furthermore, it can be even more challenging to document the effects of mindfulness in less structured conditions including online implementation, which might involve synchronous or asynchronous activities. In addition, for home-based interventions, clinicians and/or parents/caregivers might have difficulty implementing specific strategies with fidelity as well as accurately assessing their outcomes. Given these challenges, a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods will likely be most useful when examining the effectiveness of mindfulness within these contexts.

From an ethical standpoint, if school psychologists are directly implementing mindfulness practices with students, teachers, and/or parents, matters of proficiency and competence must be taken into account. While this is true for any school-based interventions, competence in mindfulness is different in that it entails maintaining some form of practice in one’s personal life. A number of researchers have highlighted this factor and noted that there is debate regarding type and frequency of practice that is considered acceptable. While there has been no formal research on the use of mindfulness practices among school psychologists, it has been increasingly emphasized as an important part of self-care and strategy to prevent burnout (NASP, 2020).

Quality and adequacy of mindfulness training programs also warrant additional attention. Both small-scale studies (e.g., Jean-Baptiste, 2014) and systematic reviews (e.g., Tudor et al., 2022) emphasize the importance of considering multiple implementation variables: (a) how participants are introduced and trained for mindfulness, (b) their previous experiences and beliefs related to mindfulness, and (c) level of responsiveness, which can be further delineated in terms of receptivity, acceptability, satisfaction, and perceived cost–benefit analysis. While some research has examined these factors, they have not been consistently integrated as part of implementation science in school-based mindfulness practice.

Lastly, school psychologists and other personnel can help ensure sound and ethical practice of mindfulness by working with stakeholders at multiple levels of school systems. This foundational work is vital to promote accessibility for members of the school community, safeguard integrity of specific mindfulness practices and interventions, and to build voluntary and truly collaborative relationships. These pieces will not only engender the best outcomes and value for school-based mindfulness but also contribute to its growth as an evidence-based practice in schools.