Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Incarcerated Black Women in the Southern USA: A Narrative Review of STI and HIV Risk and Implications for Future Public Health Research, Practice, and Policy

  • Published:
Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Incarcerated black women in the southern USA are understudied despite the high prevalence of sexually transmitted infections (STI) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). These incarceration and health disparities are rooted in centuries of historically inequitable treatment. Amidst the current dialogue on mass incarceration in the south and its relationship to the health of the black community, individual and environmental risk factors for STI/HIV transmission are seldom paired with discussions of evidence-based solutions. A narrative review of the literature from January 1995 to May 2015 was conducted. This sample of the literature (n = 18) revealed that partner concurrency, inconsistent condom use, sex work, previous STI, and drug abuse augmented individual STI/HIV risk. Recommended interventions include those which promote healthier relationships, cultural competence, and gender specificity, as well as those that enhance prevention skills. Policy recommendations include improving cultural sensitivity, cultural competence, and cultural humility training for clinicians, as well as substantially increasing funding for prevention, treatment, and rehabilitative services. These recommendations are timely given the recent national attention to incarceration, STI, and HIV disparities, particularly in the southern USA.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Leukefeld C, Oser C, Havens J, Tindall M, Mooney J, Duvall J, et al. Drug abuse treatment beyond prison walls. Addict Sci Clin Pract. 2009;5(1):24–30.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  2. Millay TA, Satyanarayana VA, O'Leary CC, Crecelius R, Cottler LB. Risky business: focus-group analysis of sexual behaviors, drug use, and victimization among incarcerated women in St. Louis. J Urban Health. 2009;86(5):810–5.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Centers for Disease Control. HIV in Correctional Settings; 2014. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/risk/other/correctional.html Accessed 1 May 15.

  4. Hammett T, Drachman-Jones A. HIV/AIDS, sexually transmitted diseases, and incarceration among women: national and southern perspectives. Sex Transm Dis. 2006;33(7):17–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. United States Census Bureau. Census Bureau Regions and Divisions with State FIPS Codes; 2012. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/geo/maps-data/maps/pdfs/reference/us_regdiv.pdf Accessed 1 May 2014.

  6. Centers for Disease Control. CDC report finds adolescent girls continue to bear a major burden on common sexually transmitted diseases; 2009. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/nchhstp/newsroom/STDsurveillancepressrelease.html. Accessed 2 May 14.

  7. Freudenberg N. Adverse effects of US jail and prison policies on the health and well- being of women of color. Am J Public Health. 2002;92(12):1895–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Reif S, Geonnotti KL, Whetten K. HIV and AIDS in the Deep South. Am J Public Health. 2006;96(6):970–3.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Paasche-Orlow M, Clarke J, Hebert M, Ray M, Stein M. Educational attainment but not literacy is associated with HIV risk behavior among incarcerated women. J Womens Health. 2005;14(9):852–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Zaitzow BH. Women prisoners and HIV/AIDS. J Assn of Nurs AIDS Care. 1999;10(6):78–89.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Dubois WEB. The souls of black folk. New York: Fawcett Publications; 1903.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Marable M. How capitalism underdeveloped black America. New York: South End Press; 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Patterson A. Germs and Jim Crow: The impact of microbiology on public health policies in progressive era American south. J Hist Biology. 2009;42(3):529–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Jones JH. Bad blood: The Tuskegee syphilis experiment. New York: Free Press; 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Centers for Disease Control. U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee; 2013. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/faq.htm. Accessed 1 May 14.

  16. Stehney M. Legacy of the American eugenics movement: implications for primary care. Primary Care: Clin Office Pract. 2004;31(3):525–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Schoen J. Between choice and coercion: women and the politics of sterilization. J Women Hist. 2001;13(1):132–56.

  18. Price G, Darity W. The economics of race and eugenic sterilization in North Carolina: 1958–196. Econ Hum Biol. 2010;8(2):261–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Gregory JN. The southern diaspora: how the great migrations of black and white southerners transformed America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Thomas JC. From slavery to incarceration: social forces affecting the epidemiology of sexually transmitted diseases in the rural south. Sex Transm Dis. 2006;33(7):S6–S10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Moskowitz GB, Stone J, Childs A. Implicit stereotyping and medical decisions: unconscious stereotype activation in practitioners' thoughts about African Americans. Am J Public Health. 2012;102(5):996–1001.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Juarez JA, Marvel K, Brezinski KL, Glazner C, Towbin MM, Lawton S. Bridging the gap: a curriculum to teach residents cultural humility. Fam Med. 2006;38(2):97–102.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Lawston JM. Women, the criminal justice system, and incarceration: processes of power, silence, and resistance. NWSA Journal. 2008;20(2):1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Paltrow L. Roe v Wade and the new Jane Crow: Reproductive rights in the age of mass incarceration. Am J Public Health. 2013;103(1):17–21.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Hammett TM, Harmon MP, Rhodes W. The burden of infectious disease among inmates and releases from U.S. correctional facilities, 1997. Am J Public Health. 2002;92(11):1789–94.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Hogben M, St. Lawrence JS. HIV/STD risk reduction interventions in prison settings. J Women Health Gender-Based Medicine. 2000;9(6):587–92.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Abiona T, Adefuye A, Balogun J, Sloan P. Gender differences in HIV risk behaviors of inmates. J Women Health. 2009;18(1):65–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Thomas J, Lewandowski B, Isler M, Torrone E, Wilson G. Incarceration and sexually transmitted infections: a neighborhood perspective. J Urban Health. 2008;85(1):90–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Leh S. HIV infection in U.S. correctional systems: its effect on the community. J Commun Health Nurs. 1999;16(1):53–63.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Rosen D, Schoenbach V, Wohl D, White B, Stewart P. Characteristics and behaviors associated with HIV infection among inmates in the North Carolina prison system. Am J Public Health. 2009;99(6):1123–30.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Oser CB, Staton-Tindall M, Leukefeld CG. HIV testing in correctional agencies and community treatment programs: the impact of internal organizational structure. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2007;32(3):301–10.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Centers for Disease Control. HIV factsheet; 2015. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/risk/gender/women/facts/index.html. Accessed 1 May 15.

  33. Fleming PL, Lansky A, Lee LM, Nakashima AK. The epidemiology of HIV/AIDS in women of the southern United States. Sex Transm Dis. 2006;33(7):S32–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Reentry Policy Council. Report of the reentry policy council: Charting the safe and successful return of prisoners to the community; 2005. Retrieved from http://csgjusticecenter.org/reentry/publications/the-report-of-the-re-entry-policy-council-charting-the-safe-and-successful-return-of-prisoners-to-the-community/ Accessed 2 May 14.

  35. Simpson D, Camacho L, Vogtsberger K, Williams M, Stephens R, Jones A, et al. Reducing AIDS risks through community outreach interventions for drug injectors. Psychol Addict Behav. 1994;8(2):86–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Adimora A, Schoenbach V, Martinson F, Donaldson K, Stancil T, Fullilove R. Concurrent sexual partnerships among African Americans in the rural south. Ann Epidemio. 2004;14(3):155–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Khan MR, Wohl DA, Weir SS, Adimora AA, Moseley C, Norcott K, et al. Incarceration and risky sexual relationships in a southern city. J Urban Health. 2008;85(1):100–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Nunn A, Cornwall A, Fu J, Bazerman L, Loewenthal H, Beckwith C. Linking HIV-positive jail inmates to treatment, care, and social services after release: results from a qualitative assessment of the COMPASS Program. J Urban Health. 2010;87(6):954–68.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Staton-Tindall M, Frisman L, Lin HJ, Leukefeld C, Oser C, Havens JR, et al. Relationship influence and health risk behavior among re-entering women offenders. Women’s Health Issues. 2011;21(3):230–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Staton-Tindall M, Havens JR, Oser CB, Prendergast M, Leukefeld C. Gender-specific factors associated with community substance abuse treatment utilization among incarcerated substance users. Int J Offender Ther and Comp Criminol. 2009;53(4):401–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Sapiano T, Moore A, Kalayil E, Zhang X, Chen B, Uhl G, et al. Evaluation of an HIV prevention intervention designed for African American women: Results from the SISTA community-based organization behavioral outcomes project. AIDS Behav. 2012;17(3):1052–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Knudsen H, Staton-Tindall M, Oser C, Havens J, Leukefeld C. Reducing risky relationships: a multisite randomized control trial of a prison-based intervention for reducing HIV sexual risk behaviors among women with a history of drug use. AIDS Care. 2014;26(9):1071–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Miller J. Toward a new psychology of women. Boston: Beacon Press; 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  44. St. Lawrence J, Eldridge GD, Shelby MC, Little CE, Brasfield TL, O’Bannon RE. HIV risk reduction for incarcerated women: A comparison of brief interventions based on two theoretical models. J Consult Clin Psych. 1997;65(3):504–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Bandura A. Social foundations of thought and action: a social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall; 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Connell RW. Gender and power. Stanford: Stanford University Press; 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Prochaska J, DiClemente C. Stages and processes of self-change of smoking: toward an integrative model of Change. J Consult Clin Psych. 1983;51(3):390–5.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. DiClemente R, Wingood G, Rose E, Sales J, Lang D. Efficacy of a sexually transmitted disease/human immunodeficiency virus sexual risk-reduction intervention for African American adolescent females seeking sexual health services: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2009;163(12):1112–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Carey MP, Senn TE, Vanable PA, Coury-Doniger P, Urban MA. Brief and intensive behavioral interventions to promote sexual risk reduction among STD clinic patients: results from a randomized controlled trial. AIDS Behav. 2010;14(3):504–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Martin SS, O’Connell DJ, Inciardi JA, Surratt HL, Maiden KM. Integrating an HIV/HCV brief intervention in prisoner reentry: Results of a multisite prospective study. J Psychoact Drugs. 2008;40(4):427–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Bronfenbrenner U. The ecology of human development. Cambridge: Harvard University Press; 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  52. DiClemente RJ, Wingood GM. A randomized controlled trial of an HIV sexual risk reduction intervention for young African American women. JAMA. 1995;274(16):1271–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Guttmacher Institute. Review of Key Findings of “Emerging Answers 2007”Report on Sex Education Programs; 2007. Retrieved From: http://www.guttmacher.org/media/evidencecheck/2007/11/07/Advisory_Emerging_Answers_2007.pdf. Accessed 1 May 14.

  54. Van Olphen J, Eliason M, Freudenburg N, Barnes M. Nowhere to go: how stigma limits the options of female drug users after release from jail. Subst Abus Treatment Prev Pol. 2009. doi:10.1186/1747-597X-4-10.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Schneider S, Huy C, Schutz J, Diehl K. Smoking cessation during pregnancy: a systematic literature review. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2009;29(1):81–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Marlowe D, Festinger DS, Lee PA, Dugosh K, Benasutti KM. Matching judicial supervision to clients’ risk status in court. Crim Delinq. 2006;52(1):52–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Zaller ND, Holmes L, Dyl AC, Mitty JA, Beckwith CG, Flanigan TP, et al. Linkage to treatment and supportive services among HIV-positive ex-offenders in Project Bridge. J Health Care Poor Underserved. 2008;19(2):522–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey (NHAMCS). 2010 emergency department summary tables. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/ahcd/nhamcs_emergency/2010_ed_web_tables.pdf. Accessed 1 May 14.

  59. Sacks V. Women and AIDS: An analysis of media representations. Soc Sci Med. 1996;42(1):59–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Tervalon M, Murray-Garcia J. Cultural humility versus cultural competence: a critical distinction in defining physician training outcomes in multicultural education. J Health Care Poor Underserved. 1998;9(2):117–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Justice Policy Institute. Treatment or incarceration?; 2004. Retrieved from http://www.justicepolicy.org/uploads/justicepolicy/documents/04-01_rep_mdtreatmentorincarceration_ac-dp.pdf. Accessed 2 May 14.

  62. United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. Drug use and crime; 2006. Retrieved from http://www.bjs.gov/content/dcf/duc.cfm. Accessed 2 May 15.

  63. Worth D. Minority women and AIDS: Culture, race, and gender. In: Feldman DA, editor. Culture and AIDS. New York: Praeger Publishers; 1990. p. 111–35.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Phelan JC, Link BG, Feldman NM. The genomic revolution and beliefs about essential racial differences: a backdoor to eugenics? Am Sociol Rev. 2013;78(2):167–91.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Jones CP. Levels of racism: A theoretical framework and a gardener’s tale. Am J Public Health. 2000;90(8):1212–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Behavioral and Community Health Sciences, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center—New Orleans, School of Public Health, 2020 Gravier Street, 3rd Floor, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA

    Nicole Pelligrino, Melinda Sothern & Stephen Phillippi

  2. Department of Government and Justice Studies, Appalachian State University, Boone, NC, USA

    Barbara H. Zaitzow

  3. Department of Epidemiology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center—New Orleans, School of Public Health, New Orleans, LA, USA

    Richard Scribner

Authors
  1. Nicole Pelligrino
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Barbara H. Zaitzow
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Melinda Sothern
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Richard Scribner
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Stephen Phillippi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nicole Pelligrino.

Ethics declarations

Funding

This study was funded by the Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center School of Public Health, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center Jim Finks Endowed Chair in Health Promotion, and the National Center on Minority Health and Health Disparities (NCMHD) P20 MD00481701.

Conflict of Interest

Nicole Pelligrino declares that she has no conflict of interest. Barbara H. Zaitzow declares that she has no conflict of interest. Melinda Sothern declares that she has no conflict of interest. Richard Scribner declares that he has no conflict of interest. Stephen Phillippi declares that he has no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Pelligrino, N., Zaitzow, B.H., Sothern, M. et al. Incarcerated Black Women in the Southern USA: A Narrative Review of STI and HIV Risk and Implications for Future Public Health Research, Practice, and Policy. J. Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities 4, 9–18 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-015-0194-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-015-0194-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation