Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A computational and experimental approach to understanding material flow behavior during additive friction stir deposition (AFSD)

  • Published:
Computational Particle Mechanics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In this study, a combined computational and experimental particle tracking investigation was performed for a solid-state additive manufacturing and repair process, Additive Friction Stir Deposition (AFSD). Specifically, smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) simulations of AFSD were conducted in-order to elucidate deposition mechanics. The particle tracking of the SPH AFSD simulations was validated using experimental depositions of two feedstock varieties, including anodized AA6061-T6 feedstock to track external particles and AA6061-T6 copper wire core feedstock to track internal particles, to represent flow behavior from different regions of the feedstock. The X-Ray computed tomography (CT) experimental results revealed that the anodized oxides on the outside of the feedstock flowed to the retreating side, whereas the copper wire in the center of the feedstock migrated to the advancing side. Particle tracking results from the SPH simulations showed that, in general, particle movement is limited to directly beneath the feedstock. The rotational, radial, and traverse flow interactions visualized by AFSD simulations explained the advancing and retreating side biases experienced by the internal copper wire and surface oxides on the anodized feedstock. This work demonstrates the ability to predict AFSD material distributions, which has a significant impact on as-deposited material quality.

Graphical abstract

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Ren SR, Ma ZY, Chen LQ (2007) Effect of welding parameters on tensile properties and fracture behavior of friction stir welded Al-Mg-Si alloy. Scr Mater 56:69–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2006.08.054

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. He J, Ling Z, Li H (2016) Effect of tool rotational speed on residual stress, microstructure, and tensile properties of friction stir welded 6061–T6 aluminum alloy thick plate. Int J Adv Manufact Technol 84:1953–1961. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-015-7859-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Rajakumar S, Muralidharan C, Balasubramanian V (2011) Influence of friction stir welding process and tool parameters on strength properties of AA7075-T6 aluminium alloy joints. Mater Des 32:535–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2010.08.025

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Mishra RS, Ma ZY (2014) Friction stir welding and processing II. Mater Sci Eng R 50:1–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mser.2005.07.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Ma ZY (2008) Friction stir processing technology: a review. Metall Mater Trans A Phys Metall Mater Sci 39A:642–658. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-007-9459-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Nandan R, DebRoy T, Bhadeshia HKDH (2008) Recent advances in friction-stir welding - process, weldment structure and properties. Prog Mater Sci 53:980–1023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2008.05.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Zhu N et al (2021) The effect of anodization on the mechanical properties of AA6061 produced by additive friction stir-deposition. Metals (Basel) 11(11):1773. https://doi.org/10.3390/met11111773

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Phillips BJ et al (2021) Examination of parallel deposition path microstructure and material flow on interface tensile behavior for aluminum alloy Al-Mg-Si additive friction stir-deposition. J Mater Process Technol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2021.117169

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Avery DZ et al (2018) Fatigue behavior of solid-state additive manufactured inconel 625. J Mater. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-018-3114-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Mason CJT et al (2021) Process-structure-property relations for as-deposited solid-state additively manufactured high-strength aluminum alloy. Addit Manuf 40:101879. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.101879

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Rutherford BA et al (2020) Effect of thermomechanical processing on fatigue behavior in solid-state additive manufacturing of Al-Mg-Si alloy. Metals (Basel) 10:1–17. https://doi.org/10.3390/met10070947

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Phillips BJ et al (2019) Microstructure-deformation relationship of additive friction stir-deposition Al–Mg–Si. Materialia (Oxf) 7:100387. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MTLA.2019.100387

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Avery DZ et al (2020) Influence of grain refinement and microstructure on fatigue behavior for solid-state additively manufactured Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy. Metall Mater Trans A Phys Metall Mater Sci 51:2778–2795. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-020-05746-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Anderson-Wedge K et al (2021) Characterization of the fatigue behavior of additive friction stir-deposition AA2219. Int J Fatigue 142:105951

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Yoder JK, Griffiths RJ, Yu HZ (2021) Deformation-based additive manufacturing of 7075 aluminum with wrought-like mechanical properties. Mater Des 198:109288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2020.109288

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Han Y, Griffiths RJ, Yu HZ, Zhu Y (2020) Quantitative microstructure analysis for solid-state metal additive manufacturing via deep learning. J Mater Res 35(15):1936–1948. https://doi.org/10.1557/jmr.2020.120

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Myhr OR, Børvik T, Marioara CD, Wenner S, Hopperstad OS (2020) Nanoscale modelling of combined isotropic and kinematic hardening of 6000 series aluminium alloys. Mech Mater 151:103603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mechmat.2020.103603

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Schmale J, Fehrenbacher A, Shrivastava A, Pfefferkorn FE (2016) Calibration of dynamic tool-workpiece interface temperature measurement during friction stir welding. Measurement 88:331–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2016.02.065

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Perry MEJ, Griffiths RJ, Garcia D, Sietins JM, Zhu Y, Yu HZ (2020) Morphological and microstructural investigation of the non-planar interface formed in solid-state metal additive manufacturing by additive friction stir deposition. Addit Manuf 35:101293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101293

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Griffiths RJ et al (2021) Solid-state additive manufacturing of aluminum and copper using additive friction stir deposition: process-microstructure linkages. Materialia (Oxf) 15:100967. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtla.2020.100967

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Rivera OG et al (2017) Microstructures and mechanical behavior of Inconel 625 fabricated by solid-state additive manufacturing. Mater Sci Eng, A 694:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2017.03.105

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Priedeman JL et al (2020) Microstructure development in additive friction stir-deposited Cu. Metals (Basel) 10:1538. https://doi.org/10.3390/met10111538

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Jordon JB et al (2020) Direct recycling of machine chips through a novel solid-state additive manufacturing process. Mater Des 193:108850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2020.108850

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Griffiths RJ, Petersen DT, Garcia D, Yu HZ (2019) Additive friction stir-enabled solid-state additive manufacturing for the repair of 7075 aluminum alloy. Appl Sci 9(3486):1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9173486

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Garcia D et al (2020) In situ investigation into temperature evolution and heat generation during additive friction stir deposition: a comparative study of Cu and Al-Mg-Si. Addit Manuf 34:101386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101386

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Jordon JB, Rao H, Amaro R, Allison P (2019) Fatigue in friction stir welding. Butterworth-Heinemann. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2017-0-04065-X

  27. Liu H, Ushioda K, Fujii H (2019) Elucidation of interface joining mechanism during friction stir welding through Cu/Cu-10Zn interfacial observations. Acta Mater 166:324–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2019.01.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Fadaeifard F, Matori KA, Abd Aziz S, Zolkarnain L (2017) Effect of the welding speed on the macrostructure, microstructure and mechanical properties of AA6061-T6 friction stir butt welds. Metals (Basel) 7:48. https://doi.org/10.3390/met7020048

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Oosterkamp A, Oosterkamp LD, Nordeide A (2004) ‘Kissing bond’ phenomena in solid-state welds of aluminum alloys. Weld J 83:225–231

    Google Scholar 

  30. Goel P et al (2018) Investigation on the effect of tool pin profiles on mechanical and microstructural properties of friction stir butt and scarf welded aluminium alloy 6063. Metals (Basel) 8:74. https://doi.org/10.3390/met8010074

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Li B, Shen Y, Hu W (2011) The study on defects in aluminum 2219–T6 thick butt friction stir welds with the application of multiple non-destructive testing methods. Mater Des 32:2073–2084. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2010.11.054

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Sato YS, Takauchi H, Park SHC, Kokawa H (2005) Characteristics of the kissing-bond in friction stir welded Al alloy 1050. Mater Sci Eng, A 405:333–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2005.06.008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Xu X, Liu Q, Qi S, Hou H, Wang J, Ren X (2021) Effect of incomplete penetration defects on mechanical and fatigue properties of friction-stir-welded 6802–T6 joint. J Market Res 15:4021–4031. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JMRT.2021.10.028

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Huang Y et al (2019) Microstructures and mechanical properties of micro friction stir welding (μFSW) of 6061–T4 aluminum alloy. J Market Res 8(1):1084–1091. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JMRT.2017.10.010

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Bin Chen H, Yan K, Lin T, Ben Chen S, Jiang CY, Zhao Y (2006) The investigation of typical welding defects for 5456 aluminum alloy friction stir welds. Mater Sci Eng A 433:64–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2006.06.056

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Hamilton R, Mackenzie D, Li H (2010) Multi-physics simulation of friction stir welding process. Eng Comput (Swansea, Wales) 27(8):967–985. https://doi.org/10.1108/02644401011082980

    Article  MATH  Google Scholar 

  37. Zhi Gao E, Xing Zhang X, Zhong Liu C, Yi Ma Z (2018) Numerical simulations on material flow behaviors in whole process of friction stir welding. Transact Nonferrous Metals Soc China (English Edition) 28:2324–2334. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1003-6326(18)64877-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Fraser K, Kiss L, St-Georges L, Drolet D (2018) Optimization of friction stir weld joint quality using a meshfree fully-coupled thermo-mechanics approach. Metals (Basel) 8:1–24. https://doi.org/10.3390/met8020101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Dialami N, Cervera M, Chiumenti M, Segatori A (2019) Prediction of joint line remnant defect in friction stir welding. Int J Mech Sci 151:61–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2018.11.012

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Stubblefield GG, Fraser K, Phillips BJ, Jordon JB, Allison PG (2021) A Meshfree computational framework for the numerical simulation of the solid-state additive manufacturing process, additive friction stir-deposition (AFS-D). Mater Des 202:109514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2021.109514

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Stubblefield GG et al (2022) Elucidating the influence of temperature and strain rate on the mechanics of AFS-D through a combined experimental and computational approach. J Mater Process Technol 305:117593

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Liu GR, Liu MB (2003) Smoothed particle hydrodynamics: a meshfree particle method. World Scientific Publishing. ISBN-13 978-981-238-456-0

  43. Yang X, Liu M, Peng S (2014) Smoothed particle hydrodynamics modeling of viscous liquid drop without tensile instability. Comput Fluids 92:199–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compfluid.2014.01.002

    Article  MathSciNet  MATH  Google Scholar 

  44. Fraser K (2017) “Robust and efficient meshfree solid thermo-mechanics simulation of friction stir welding,” Université du Québec à Chicoutimi

  45. Fratini L, Buffa G, Micari F, Shivpuri R (2009) On the material flow in FSW of T-joints: Influence of geometrical and tecnological parameters. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 44:570–578. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-008-1836-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Dickerson T, Shercliff HR, Schmidt H (2003) “A weld marker technique for flow visualization in FSW,” in: 4th International symposium on friction stir welding. Available: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267224730

  47. Schmidt HNB, Dickerson TL, Hattel JH (2006) Material flow in butt friction stir welds in AA2024-T3. Acta Mater 54:1199–1209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2005.10.052

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Mehta K et al (2021) Investigation of exit-hole repairing on dissimilar aluminum-copper friction stir welded joints. J Market Res 13:2180–2193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.06.019

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Li G, Zhou L, Zhou W, Song X, Huang Y (2019) Influence of dwell time on microstructure evolution and mechanical properties of dissimilar friction stir spot welded aluminum-copper metals. J Market Res 8(3):2613–2624. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.02.015

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Xie L et al (2022) Investigations on the material flow and the influence of the resulting texture on the tensile properties of dissimilar friction stir welded ZK60/Mg–Al–Sn–Zn joints. J Market Res 17:1716–1730. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.01.127

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

A portion of this work was supported by the US Department of Defense Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program WP18-C4-1323. The authors would also like to thank the support of the US Department of Defense Science, Mathematics, and Research for Transformation Program for funding. The raw/processed data required to reproduce these findings cannot be shared at this time due to technical or time limitations.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Geotechnical and Structures Lab, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS, USA

    G. G. Stubblefield

  2. National Research Council Canada, Saguenay, QC, Canada

    K. A. Fraser

  3. Mechanical Engineering Department, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA

    T. W. Robinson, J. Z. Tew & B. T. Cordle

  4. Mechanical Engineering Department, Baylor University, Waco, TX, USA

    N. Zhu, R. P. Kinser, J. B. Jordon & P. G. Allison

  5. Point-of-Need Innovations (PONI) Center, Baylor University, Waco, TX, USA

    N. Zhu, R. P. Kinser, J. B. Jordon & P. G. Allison

Authors
  1. G. G. Stubblefield
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. K. A. Fraser
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. T. W. Robinson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. N. Zhu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. R. P. Kinser
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. J. Z. Tew
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. B. T. Cordle
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. J. B. Jordon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. P. G. Allison
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

GG Stubblefield contributed to formal analysis, writing—original draft, investigation, and visualization. KF contributed to investigation and writing—review and editing. NZ contributed to investigation and writing—review and editing. RPK contributed to investigation and writing—review and editing. JZT contributed to investigation and writing—review and editing. BTC contributed to investigation and writing—review and editing. J.B. Jordon contributed to funding acquisition, project administration, writing—review and editing, and conceptualization. PGA contributed to funding acquisition, project administration, writing—review and editing, and conceptualization.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to P. G. Allison.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Appendices

Appendix

Appendix A. Constitutive Model Constants

The FKS constitutive model constants taken from Stubblefield et al. [41] are shown in Table

Table 2 FKS constitutive model constants used in this study
Full size table

2.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Stubblefield, G.G., Fraser, K.A., Robinson, T.W. et al. A computational and experimental approach to understanding material flow behavior during additive friction stir deposition (AFSD). Comp. Part. Mech. 10, 1629–1643 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40571-023-00578-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40571-023-00578-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation