Abstract
UV-C exhibits efficient growth inhibition against a wide range of microorganisms and has an elicitor impact on the induction of resistance against pathogens in host plants, emerging as a promising alternative to fungicides. This study examined the defense elicitor effect of both low (0.05 W/cm2) and high (0.133 W/cm2) powered UV-C (275 nm) against Botrytis cinerea on grapevines. Gene expression, total stilbene content, and the quality of the berries were assessed in ‘Kyoho’ grapevines irradiated with UV-C. Low and high-powered UV-C reduced the in vitro growth of B. cinerea by 40–50% and lowered the in vivo infection and disease severity by 40–85% in the leaves. Lesion formation was reduced by 20–50% in berries treated with UV-C. The spores of B. cinerea did not infect the unwounded berries of ‘Shine Muscat’ and ‘Kyoho’ grape treated with UV-C. The augmented levels of total soluble solids, color values, and reduced titratable acidity improved the quality of the UV-C-irradiated ‘Kyoho’ berries compared to the control. The total stilbene content was four to five times higher with 37.48 µg g−1 fresh weight (FW) using low UV-powered UV-C and 43.11 µg g−1 FW using high UV-powered UV-C in ‘Kyoho’ berry skins treated with UV-C compared to the control (9.24 µg g−1 FW), with predominant levels of trans-resveratrol. The genes involved in stilbene synthesis, defense, and antioxidant activity were strongly upregulated in the leaves and berries of grapevines in response to the low and high UV-C treatments. The low and high UV-C treatments elicit the induction of resistances in grapes against B. cinerea and improve the quality of berries. Future research will be needed on other parameters before UV-C irradiation can be applied to inhibit the incidence of grey mold in vineyards.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
References
Adrian M, Jeandet P, Veneau J et al (1997) Biological activity of resveratrol, a stilbenic compound from grapevines, against Botrytis cinerea, the causal agent for gray mold. J Chem Ecol 23:1689–1702. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOEC.0000006444.79951.75
Ahn SY, Kim SA, Choi SJ, Yun HK (2015a) Comparison of accumulation of stilbene compounds and stilbene related gene expression in two grape berries irradiated with different light sources. Hortic Environ Biotechnol 56:36–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13580-015-0045-x
Ahn SY, Kim SA, Yun HK (2015b) Inhibition of Botrytis cinerea and accumulation of stilbene compounds by light-emitting diodes of grapevine leaves and differential expression of defense-related genes. Eur J Plant Pathol 143:753–765. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10658-015-0725-5
Belal BEA, El Kenawy MA, Omar ASM (2022) Using brassinolide and girdling combined application as an alternative to ethephon for improving color and quality of “Crimson Seedless” grapevines. Hortic Environ Biotechnol 63:869–885. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13580-022-00445-3
Bi K, Liang Y, Mengiste T, Sharon A (2023) Killing softly: a roadmap of Botrytis cinerea pathogenicity. Trends Plant Sci 28:211–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2022.08.024
Campbell J, Sarkhosh A, Habibi F et al (2021) Evaluation of biochemical juice attributes and color-related traits in muscadine grape population. Foods 10:1101. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10051101
Cao J, Zhang H, Yang Q, Ren R (2013) Efficacy of Pichia caribbica in controlling blue mold rot and patulin degradation in apples. Int J Food Microbiol 162:167–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.01.007
Charles MT, Benhamou N, Arul J (2008) Physiological basis of UV-C induced resistance to Botrytis cinerea in tomato fruit: III. Ultrastructural modifications and their impact on fungal colonization. Postharvest Biol Technol 47:27–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2007.05.015
Choi S-J (2012) The influence of UV irradiation on stilbene contents and gray mold incidence in grapevine leaves. Hortic Sci Technol 30:493–500. https://doi.org/10.7235/HORT.2012.12095
Choi DS, Nguyen TKL, Oh MM (2022a) Growth and biochemical responses of kale to supplementary irradiation with different peak wavelengths of UV-A light-emitting diodes. Hortic Environ Biotechnol 63:65–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13580-021-00377-4
Choi J, Kim J, Yoon HI, Son JE (2022b) Effect of far-red and UV-B light on the growth and ginsenoside content of ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer) sprouts aeroponically grown in plant factories. Hortic Environ Biotechnol 63:77–87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13580-021-00380-9
Crupi P, Pichierri A, Basile T, Antonacci D (2013) Postharvest stilbenes and flavonoids enrichment of table grape cv Redglobe (Vitis vinifera L.) as affected by interactive UV-C exposure and storage conditions. Food Chem 141:802–808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.03.055
Darras AI, Bali I, Argyropoulou E (2015) Disease resistance and growth responses in Pelargonium × hortorum plants to brief pulses of UV-C irradiation. Sci Hortic (amsterdam) 181:95–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2014.10.039
de Oliveira IR, Crizel GR, Severo J et al (2016) Preharvest UV-C radiation influences physiological, biochemical, and transcriptional changes in strawberry cv. Camarosa. Plant Physiol Biochem 108:391–399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2016.08.012
Del-Castillo-Alonso MÁ, Monforte L, Tomás-Las-Heras R et al (2021) Secondary metabolites and related genes in Vitis vinifera L. cv. Tempranillo grapes as influenced by ultraviolet radiation and berry development. Physiol Plant 173:709–724. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppl.13483
Douillet-Breuil AC, Jeandet P, Adrian M, Bessis R (1999) Changes in the phytoalexin content of various Vitis spp. in response to ultraviolet C elicitation. J Agric Food Chem 47:4456–4461. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf9900478
Duan D, Halter D, Baltenweck R et al (2015) Genetic diversity of stilbene metabolism in Vitis sylvestris. J Exp Bot 66:3243–3257. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erv137
Duarte-Sierra A, Charles MT, Arul J (2019) UV-C hormesis: a means of controlling diseases and delaying senescence in fresh fruits and vegetables during storage. Postharvest Pathol Fresh Hortic Prod. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315209180-17
Dubrovina AS, Kiselev KV (2017) Regulation of stilbene biosynthesis in plants. Planta 246:597–623. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00425-017-2730-8
Forges M, Vàsquez H, Charles F et al (2018) Impact of UV-C radiation on the sensitivity of three strawberry plant cultivars (Fragaria x ananassa) against Botrytis cinerea. Sci Hortic (amsterdam) 240:603–613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2018.06.063
Fotopoulos C, Krystallis A, Ness M (2003) Wine produced by organic grapes in Greece: using means—end chains analysis to reveal organic buyers’ purchasing motives in comparison to the non-buyers. Food Qual Prefer 14:549–566. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0950-3293(02)00130-1
Gatto P, Vrhovsek U, Muth J et al (2008) Ripening and genotype control stilbene accumulation in healthy grapes. J Agric Food Chem 56:11773–11785. https://doi.org/10.1021/JF8017707
Goetz G, Fkyerat A, Métais N et al (1999) Resistance factors to grey mould in grape berries: identification of some phenolics inhibitors of Botrytis cinerea stilbene oxidase. Phytochemistry 52:759–767. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(99)00351-9
Greco M, Chiappetta A, Bruno L, Bitonti MB (2012) In Posidonia oceanica cadmium induces changes in DNA methylation and chromatin patterning. J Exp Bot 63:695–709. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/err313
Guerrero RF, Puertas B, Fernández MI et al (2010) Induction of stilbenes in grapes by UV-C: Comparison of different subspecies of Vitis. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 11:231–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2009.10.005
Guerrero RF, Cantos-Villar E, Fernández-Marín MI et al (2015) Optimising UV-C preharvest light for stilbene synthesis stimulation in table grape: Applications. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 29:222–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2015.02.010
Guerrero RF, Cantos-Villar E, Puertas B, Richard T (2016) Daily preharvest UV-C light maintains the high stilbenoid concentration in grapes. J Agric Food Chem 64:5139–5147. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.6b01276
Hasan MM, Bae H (2017) An overview of stress-induced resveratrol synthesis in grapes: Perspectives for resveratrol-enriched grape products. Molecules 22:1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules22020294
Höll J, Vannozzi A, Czemmel S et al (2013) The R2R3-MYB transcription factors MYB14 and MYB15 regulate stilbene biosynthesis in Vitis vinifera. Plant Cell 25:4135. https://doi.org/10.1105/TPC.113.117127
Janisiewicz WJ, Takeda F, Glenn DM et al (2016) Dark period following UV-C treatment enhances killing of Botrytis cinerea conidia and controls gray mold of strawberries. Phytopathology 106:386–394. https://doi.org/10.1094/phyto-09-15-0240-R
Jeandet P, Bessis R, Sbaghi M, Meunier P (1995) Production of the phytoalexin resveratrol by grapes as a response to Botrytis attack under natural conditions. J Phytopathol 143:135–139. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0434.1995.tb00246.x
Jun SH, Yu DJ, Hur YY, Lee HJ (2021) Identifying reliable methods for evaluating cold hardiness in grapevine buds and canes. Hortic Environ Biotechnol 62:871–878. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13580-021-00369-4
Kim SA, Ahn SY, Oh W, Yun HK (2012) In vitro test of mycelial growth inhibition of 5 fungi pathogenic to strawberries by ultraviolet-C (UV-C) irradiation. Korean J Food Sci Technol 44:634–637. https://doi.org/10.9721/kjfst.2012.44.5.634
Kim SA, Ahn S-Y, Han JH et al (2013) Differential expression screening of defense related genes in dormant buds of cold-treated grapevines. Plant Breed Biotechnol 1:14–23. https://doi.org/10.9787/pbb.2013.1.1.014
Kim SA, Oh SK, Ahn SY, Yun HK (2018) Expression of flavonoid and stilbene synthesis genes in grape berries is affected by high temperature. Hortic Sci Technol 36:607–618
Kim BM, Park JY, Jung MH, Park HS (2021) Axillary bud development of ‘shine muscat’ grapevine by treatment of 6-benzylaminopurine, spermidine, and light. Hortic Sci Technol 39:593–603. https://doi.org/10.7235/HORT.20210053
Kiselev KV, Ogneva ZV, Suprun AR et al (2019) Action of ultraviolet-C radiation and p-coumaric acid on stilbene accumulation and expression of stilbene biosynthesis-related genes in the grapevine Vitis amurensis Rupr. Acta Physiol Plant 41:1–5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11738-019-2818-9
Kobayashi M, Kanto T, Fujikawa T et al (2013) Supplemental UV radiation controls rose powdery mildew disease under the greenhouse conditions. Environ Control Biol 51:157–163. https://doi.org/10.2525/ecb.51.157
Kuck LS, Noreña CPZ (2021) Effect of UV-C irradiation on quality from fresh grapes var. Bordô Brazilian Arch Biol Technol 64:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-4324-2021200735
le Myint Z, Lee HI, Park GA et al (2022) Comparing the expressions of genes related to defense responses by infection of Phakopsora euvitis in Ampehpsis Species. Int J Korean Soc Int Agric 34:157–163
Ledermann L, Daouda S, Gouttesoulard C et al (2021) Flashes of UV-C light stimulate defenses of Vitis vinifera L. “Chardonnay” against Erysiphe necator in greenhouse and vineyard conditions. Plant Dis 105:2106–2113. https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-10-20-2229-RE
Lee JH, Kim SA, Ahn SY, Yun HK (2021) Heat shock transcriptional factor genes (VfHSFs) of Vitis flexuosa respond differentially to high temperature in grapevines. Hortic Environ Biotechnol 62:87–97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13580-020-00296-w
Liu R, Zhang L, Xiao S et al (2023) Ursolic acid, the main component of blueberry cuticular wax, inhibits Botrytis cinerea growth by damaging cell membrane integrity. Food Chem 415:135753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.135753
Malek NI, Abdullah WZW, Sembok WZ (2021) Effects of UVC radiation in delaying ripening of Berangan banana (Musa sp. AAA Berangan). Univ Malays Teren J Undergrad Res 3:173–182. https://doi.org/10.46754/umtjur.v3i4.250
Marquenie D, Geeraerd AH, Lammertyn J et al (2003) Combinations of pulsed white light and UV-C or mild heat treatment to inactivate conidia of Botrytis cinerea and Monilia fructigena. Int J Food Microbiol 85:185–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1605(02)00538-X
Marti G, Schnee S, Andrey Y et al (2014) Study of leaf metabolome modifications induced by UV-C radiations in representative Vitis, Cissus and Cannabis species by LC-MS based metabolomics and antioxidant assays. Molecules 19:14004–14021. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules190914004
Mazzucotelli E, Mastrangelo AM, Crosatti C et al (2008) Abiotic stress response in plants: When post-transcriptional and post-translational regulations control transcription. Plant Sci 174:420–431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plantsci.2008.02.005
Mercier J, Arul J, Julien C (1993) Effect of UV-C on phytoalexin accumulation and resistance to Botrytis cinerea in stored carrots. J Phytopathol 139:17–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0434.1993.tb01397.x
Myung J, Pham MD, Hwang H et al (2023) UV-B supplementation to mitigate intumescence injury of tomato seedlings. Hortic Environ Biotechnol 64:917–926. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13580-023-00537-8
Nigro F, Ippolito A, Lima G (1998) Use of UV-C light to reduce Botrytis storage rot of table grapes. Postharvest Biol Technol 13:171–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-5214(98)00009-X
Nigro F, Ippolito A, Lattanzio V et al (2000) Effect of ultraviolet-C light on postharvest decay of strawberry. J Plant Pathol 82:29–37
Park JY, Kim BM, Jung MH, Park HS (2022) Characteristics of bud necrosis and formation of inflorescence primordium in young and adult ‘Shine muscat’ grapevines. Hortic Sci Technol 40:630–642. https://doi.org/10.7235/HORT.20220057
Pathak R, Suthaparan A (2021) Variation in UV-mediated damage recovery among Pseudoidium neolycopersici isolates: possible mechanisms. PhytoFrontiers 1:219–228. https://doi.org/10.1094/PHYTOFR-08-20-0014-R
Patzke H, Schieber A (2018) Growth-inhibitory activity of phenolic compounds applied in an emulsifiable concentrate—ferulic acid as a natural pesticide against Botrytis cinerea. Food Res Int 113:18–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.06.062
Pearson RC, Goheen AC (1988) Compendium of grape diseases. APS Press, Minnesota
Peian Z, Haifeng J, Peijie G et al (2021) Chitosan induces jasmonic acid production leading to resistance of ripened fruit against Botrytis cinerea infection. Food Chem 337:127772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127772
Peng H, Pang Y, Liao Q et al (2022) The effect of preharvest UV light irradiation on berries quality: a review. Horticulturae 8:1–14. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8121171
Pinto EP, Perin EC, Schott IB et al (2016) The effect of postharvest application of UV-C radiation on the phenolic compounds of conventional and organic grapes (Vitis labrusca cv. ’Concord’). Postharvest Biol Technol 120:84–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2016.05.015
Pinto EP, Perin EC, Schott IB et al (2022) Phenolic compounds are dependent on cultivation conditions in face of UV-C radiation in ‘Concord’ grape juices (Vitis labrusca). LWT - Food Sci Technol 154:112681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2021.112681
Ramalingam S, Dhatchanamoorthi I, Arumugam A et al (2021) Functional, nutritional, antinutritional, and microbial assessment of novel fermented sugar syrup fortified with pre-mature fruits of Totapuri mango and star gooseberry. LWT—Food Sci Technol 136:110276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2020.110276
Reglinski T, Elmer PAG, Taylor JT et al (2010) Inhibition of Botrytis cinerea growth and suppression of botrytis bunch rot in grapes using chitosan. Plant Pathol 59:882–890. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3059.2010.02312.x
Roca-Couso R, Flores-Félix JD, Rivas R (2021) Mechanisms of action of microbial biocontrol agents against Botrytis cinerea. J Fungi 7:1045. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7121045
Sbaghi M, Jeandet P, Bessis R, Leroux P (1996) Degradation of stilbene-type phytoalexins in relation to the pathogenicity of Botrytis cinerea to grapevines. Plant Pathol 45:139–144. https://doi.org/10.1046/J.1365-3059.1996.D01-101.X
Sheng K, Zheng H, Shui SS et al (2018) Comparison of postharvest UV-B and UV-C treatments on table grape: changes in phenolic compounds and their transcription of biosynthetic genes during storage. Postharvest Biol Technol 138:74–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2018.01.002
Srinivasan R, Natarajan D, Shivakumar MS (2017) Spectral characterization and antibacterial activity of an isolated compound from Memecylon edule leaves. J Photochem Photobiol B Biol 168:20–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2017.01.019
Stevens C, Wilson CL, Lu JY et al (1996) Plant hormesis induced by ultraviolet light-C for controlling postharvest diseases of tree fruits. Crop Prot 15:129–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-2194(95)00082-8
Suthaparan A, Solhaug KA, Stensvand A, Gislerød HR (2016) Determination of UV action spectra affecting the infection process of Oidium neolycopersici, the cause of tomato powdery mildew. J Photochem Photobiol B Biol 156:41–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2016.01.009
Suzuki M, Nakabayashi R, Ogata Y et al (2015) Multiomics in grape berry skin revealed specific induction of the stilbene synthetic pathway by ultraviolet-C irradiation. Plant Physiol 168:47–59. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.114.254375
Tsurumoto T, Fujikawa Y, Onoda Y et al (2022) Effect of high-dose 290 nm UV-B on resveratrol content in grape skins. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 86:502–508. https://doi.org/10.1093/bbb/zbac014
Tudi M, Ruan HD, Wang L et al (2021) Agriculture development, pesticide application and its impact on the environment. Int J Environ Res Public Health 18:1112. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18031112
Urban L, Charles F, de Miranda MRA, Aarrouf J (2016) Understanding the physiological effects of UV-C light and exploiting its agronomic potential before and after harvest. Plant Physiol Biochem 105:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2016.04.004
Valero A, Begum M, Leong SL et al (2007) Effect of germicidal UV-C light on fungi isolated from grapes and raisins. Lett Appl Microbiol 45:238–243. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1472-765X.2007.02175.x
Vàsquez H, Ouhibi C, Forges M et al (2020) Hormetic doses of UV-C light decrease the susceptibility of tomato plants to Botrytis cinerea infection. J Phytopathol 168:524–532. https://doi.org/10.1111/JPH.12930
Wang W, Tang K, Yang HR et al (2010) Distribution of resveratrol and stilbene synthase in young grape plants (Vitis vinifera L. cv. Cabernet Sauvignon) and the effect of UV-C on its accumulation. Plant Physiol Biochem 48:142–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2009.12.002
Wang L, Ma L, Xi H et al (2013) Individual and combined effects of CaCl2 and UV−C on the biosynthesis of resveratrols in grape leaves and berry skins. J Agric Food Chem 61:7135–7141. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf401220m
Wong A, Moyer M, Gadoury D, Mahaffee W (2022) UV-C Light as a tool to manage grape powdery mildew. Bio Web Conf 50:7–10. https://doi.org/10.1051/bioconf/20225001003
Xi HF, Ma L, Wang LN et al (2015) Differential response of the biosynthesis of resveratrols and flavonoids to UV-C irradiation in grape leaves. New Zeal J Crop Hortic Sci 43:163–172. https://doi.org/10.1080/01140671.2014.989862
Xu A, Zhan JC, Huang WD (2015) Effects of ultraviolet C, methyl jasmonate and salicylic acid, alone or in combination, on stilbene biosynthesis in cell suspension cultures of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Cabernet Sauvignon. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult 122:197–211. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11240-015-0761-z
Xu Y, Charles MT, Luo Z et al (2019) Ultraviolet-C priming of strawberry leaves against subsequent Mycosphaerella fragariae infection involves the action of reactive oxygen species, plant hormones, and terpenes. Plant Cell Environ 42:815–831. https://doi.org/10.1111/PCE.13491
Yin X, Singer SD, Qiao H et al (2016) Insights into the mechanisms underlying ultraviolet-C induced resveratrol metabolism in grapevine (V. amurensis rupr.) cv. “Tonghua-3.” Front Plant Sci 7:1–16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2016.00503
You YJ, Ahn SY, Yun HK (2022) Heat shock transcriptional factors (HSFs) are expressed in response to hydrogen peroxide production in grapevines inoculated with Colletotrichum Species. Hortic Environ Biotechnol 63:735–745. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13580-022-00438-2
Younis BA, Mahoney L, Schweigkofler W, Suslow K (2019) Inactivation of plant pathogens in irrigation water runoff using a novel UV disinfection system. Eur J Plant Pathol 153:907–914. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10658-018-01608-8
Yuan L, Mori S, Haruyama N et al (2021) Strawberry pollen as a source of UV-B protection ingredients for the phytoseiid mite Neoseiulus californicus (Acari: Phytoseiidae). Pest Manag Sci 77:851–859. https://doi.org/10.1002/PS.6089
Zhang Z, Li X, Chu Y et al (2012) Three types of ultraviolet irradiation differentially promote expression of shikimate pathway genes and production of anthocyanins in grape berries. Plant Physiol Biochem 57:74–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2012.05.005
Zhang Z, Che X, Pan Q et al (2013) Transcriptional activation of flavan-3-ols biosynthesis in grape berries by UV irradiation depending on developmental stage. Plant Sci 208:67–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plantsci.2013.03.013
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by a grant No. IRKB2222 from the Korea Industrial Complex Corporation Agricultural R&D, Rural Development Administration, Republic of Korea.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
SR performed the overall experiment and data analysis and wrote the manuscript. SR, ZR, SA, JR, and SL performed the experiment to confirm the results and wrote the manuscript. HY designed and managed whole experiments and finalized the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ramalingam, S., Le Myint, Z., Ahn, S.Y. et al. UV-C treatment elicits resistant responses against Botrytis cinerea infection and the improvement of fruit characteristics in grapevines. Hortic. Environ. Biotechnol. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13580-024-00602-w
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13580-024-00602-w