Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A more plant-based diet can boost public health and reduce environmental impact in China

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Food Security Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The current diet structure of Chinese residents poses significant challenges to both health and the environment. Accordingly, in this study, a diet structure optimization model was developed to simulate the diet structure of urban and rural residents in four regions of China, taking into account nutritional needs and environmental sustainability for optimization. The results showed that by optimization based on nutrition alone, nutrient adequacy ratios could increase by 2.8% on average, narrowing regional disparities. Incorporating environmental sustainability slightly reduced nutritional improvements but significantly lowered carbon emissions, water usage, and ecological footprints by 2.9%, 6.9%, and 2.4%, respectively. By simulating the optimization of diet structure, the Qinghai-Tibet region showed potential for nutrient enhancement, whereas the southern and northern regions had opportunities for environmental impact mitigation. This study highlights the significance of transitioning towards a sustainable diet structure that enhances nutritional levels while prioritizing individual and environmental well-being and emphasizes the urgent need for change. It also offers targeted recommendations for diet structures in different regions of China, thereby providing invaluable references for policymakers and other countries striving to establish sustainable and balanced diets.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Afshin, A., Sur, P. J., Fay, K. A., Cornaby, L., Ferrara, G., Salama, J. S., et al. (2019). Health effects of dietary risks in 195 countries, 1990–2017: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. The Lancet, 393, 1958–1972.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chaudhary, A., Gustafson, D., & Mathys, A. (2018). Multi-indicator sustainability assessment of global food systems. Nature Communications, 9, 848.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chinese Nutrition Society. (2022). Dietary guidelines for Chinese residents (2022). People’s medical publishing House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coucke, N., Vermeir, I., Slabbinck, H., Geuens, M., & Choueiki, Z. (2022). How to reduce agri-environmental impacts on ecosystem services: The role of nudging techniques to increase purchase of plant-based meat substitutes. Ecosystem Services, 56, 101444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crippa, M., Solazzo, E., Guizzardi, D., Monforti-Ferrario, F., Tubiello, F. N., & Leip, A. (2021). Food systems are responsible for a third of global anthropogenic GHG emissions. Nature Food, 2, 198–209.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Donati, M., Menozzi, D., Zighetti, C., Rosi, A., Zinetti, A., & Scazzina, F. (2016). Towards a sustainable diet combining economic, environmental and nutritional objectives. Appetite, 106, 48–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Du, S., Wang, H., Zhang, B., & Popkin, B. M. (2020). Dietary potassium intake remains low and sodium intake remains high, and most sodium is derived from home food preparation for Chinese adults, 1991–2015 trends. The Journal of Nutrition, 150, 1230–1239.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fang, K., He, Y., Fang, Y., & Lian, Y. (2020). Dietary sodium intake and food sources among Chinese adults: Data from the CNNHS 2010–2012. Nutrients, 12, 453.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gephart, J. A., Davis, K. F., Emery, K. A., Leach, A. M., Galloway, J. N., & Pace, M. L. (2016). The environmental cost of subsistence: Optimizing diets to minimize footprints. Science of the Total Environment, 553, 120–127.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geyik, Ö., Hadjikakou, M., & Bryan, B. A. (2023). Climate-friendly and nutrition-sensitive interventions can close the global dietary nutrient gap while reducing GHG emissions. Nature Food, 4, 61–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hannum, E., Liu, J., & Frongillo, E. A. (2014). Poverty, food insecurity and nutritional deprivation in rural China: Implications for children’s literacy achievement. International Journal of Educational Development, 34, 90–97.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Huang, L., Wang, Z., Wang, H., Zhao, L., Jiang, H., Zhang, B., et al. (2021). Nutrition transition and related health challenges over decades in China. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 75, 247–252.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, A., Han, A., & Chai, L. (2021). Assessing the nutrient adequacy in China’s food supply from 1965 to 2018. Nutrients, 13, 2734.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, X., Xin, L., & Li, X. (2024). The global nutrition can be greatly improved with diet optimization. Resources Conservation and Recycling, 202, 107343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People’s Republic of China. (2022). National wholesale market price information system for agricultural products.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Bureau of Statistics of China. (2022). China statistical yearbook 2022. Beijing: China Statistics Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China. (2017a). Chinese dietary reference intakes—Part 1: Macronutrient. Beijing: National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China. (2017b). Chinese dietary reference intakes—Part 3: Trace element. Beijing: National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China. (2018a). Chinese dietary reference intakes—Part 2: Macroelement. Beijing: National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China. (2018b). Chinese dietary reference intakes—Part 4: Lipid-soluble vitamin. Beijing: National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China. (2018c). Chinese dietary reference intakes—Part 5: Water-soluble vitamin. Beijing: National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China. (2020). Report on the nutrition and chronic disease status of chinese residents. Beijing: People’s medical publishing House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Notarnicola, B., Tassielli, G., Renzulli, P. A., Castellani, V., & Sala, S. (2017). Environmental impacts of food consumption in Europe. Journal of Cleaner Production, 140, 753–765.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Payne, C., Scarborough, P., & Cobiac, L. (2016). Do low-carbon-emission diets lead to higher nutritional quality and positive health outcomes? A systematic review of the literature. Public Health Nutrition, 19(14), 2654–2661.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Perignon, M., Masset, G., Ferrari, G., Barré, T., Vieux, F., Maillot, M., et al. (2016). How low can dietary greenhouse gas emissions be reduced without impairing nutritional adequacy, affordability and acceptability of the diet? A modelling study to guide sustainable food choices. Public Health Nutrition, 19, 2662–2674.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Song, G., Li, M., Semakula, H. M., & Zhang, S. (2015). Food consumption and waste and the embedded carbon, water and ecological footprints of households in China. Science of the Total Environment, 529, 191–197.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Springmann, M., Clark, M., Mason-D’Croz, D., Wiebe, K., Bodirsky, B. L., Lassaletta, L., et al. (2018). Options for keeping the food system within environmental limits. Nature, 562, 519–525.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stigler, G. J. (1945). The cost of subsistence. Journal of Farm Economics, 27(2), 303–314.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tilman, D., & Clark, M. (2014). Global diets link environmental sustainability and human health. Nature, 515, 518–522.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vermeulen, S. J., Campbell, B. M., & Ingram, J. S. (2012). Climate change and food systems. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 37, 195–222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, L., Gao, B., Hu, Y., Huang, W., & Cui, S. (2020). Environmental effects of sustainability-oriented diet transition in China. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 158, 104802.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. (2020). The state of food security and nutrition in the world 2020: transforming food systems for affordable healthy diets (Vol. 2020). Food and Agriculture Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xin, L. (2021). Dietary structure upgrade of China’s residents, international trade and food security. Journal of Natural Resources, 36, 1469–1480.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xiong, X., Zhang, L., Hao, Y., Zhang, P., Chang, Y., & Liu, G. (2020). Urban dietary changes and linked carbon footprint in China: A case study of Beijing. Journal of Environmental Management, 255, 109877.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, Y., Zhu, S., Zhang, T., Wang, D., Hu, J., Gao, J., et al. (2020). Explaining income-related inequalities in dietary knowledge: Evidence from the China health and nutrition survey. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17, 532.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, Y. (2018). China Food Composition Tables. Peking University Medical Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yin, J., Zhang, X., Huang, W., Liu, L., Zhang, Y., Yang, D., et al. (2021). The potential benefits of dietary shift in China: Synergies among acceptability, health, and environmental sustainability. Science of the Total Environment, 779, 146497.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yu, D., He, Y., Guo, Q., Fang, H., Xu, X., Fang, Y., et al. (2016). Trends of energy and nutrients intake among Chinese population in 2002–2012. Wei Sheng yan jiu Journal of Hygiene Research, 45, 527–533.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yue, A., Marsh, L., Zhou, H., Medina, A., Luo, R., Shi, Y., et al. (2016). Nutritional deficiencies, the absence of information and caregiver shortcomings: A qualitative analysis of infant feeding practices in rural China. PLoS ONE, 11, e0153385.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, J., Wang, Z., Du, W., Huang, F., Jiang, H., Bai, J., et al. (2021). Twenty-five-year trends in dietary patterns among Chinese adults from 1991 to 2015. Nutrients, 13, 1327.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, L., Wang, Z., Wang, X., Chen, Z., Shao, L., Tian, Y., et al. (2020). Prevalence of overweight and obesity in China: Results from a cross-sectional study of 441 thousand adults, 2012–2015. Obesity Research and Clinical Practice, 14, 119–126.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao, L., Kase, B., Zheng, J., & Steck, S. E. (2023). Dietary patterns and risk of lung cancer: A systematic review and meta-analyses of observational studies. Current Nutrition Reports, 12(2), 1–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China [grant number 42171259] and the Key Projects of the National Natural Science Foundation of China [grant number 41930757].

Funding

National Natural Science Foundation of China, 42171259, Liangjie Xin, 41930757, Liangjie Xin.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Key Laboratory of Land Surface Pattern and Simulation, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, CAS, Beijing, 100101, China

    Xiaoyu Liu & Liangjie Xin

  2. College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China

    Xiaoyu Liu

Authors
  1. Xiaoyu Liu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Liangjie Xin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Liangjie Xin.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declared that they have no conflict of interest.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 245 KB)

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Liu, X., Xin, L. A more plant-based diet can boost public health and reduce environmental impact in China. Food Sec. 16, 411–422 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-024-01435-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-024-01435-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation