Socio-economic characteristics of study sites and food security status
In Rasuwa District 43,300 persons were living in 9778 households, according to the 2011 Census. The average household size was, therefore, about 4 persons. The proportion of women and men in the district was 49.6 and 50.4%, respectively. The proportion of women in the study sites was similar to the district average (NPHC 2011). The sites have lower population densities than most VDCs in the district. Most of the population is ethnically Tamang (NPHC 2011).
The area was severely affected by the earthquakes in April and May 2015. In Gatlang, for example, many houses had not yet been reconstructed at the time of our visit. Many people were found still living in temporary, sheet metal houses. There were also many NGO offices in the village.
The average landholding size in the study sites varied from 10 ropanis (0.5 ha) to 16 ropanis (0.8 ha) (Table 2). In general, farms are small and agriculture is practiced mainly to meet domestic food requirements. However, many people also earn significant incomes from agriculture and livestock. There were also some cases of commercial farming and collective marketing activities. Most agriculture depends on rainfall (Table 2), but in Chilime, Thuman, and Grey, there were small farmer-managed irrigation systems that enabled farmers to diversify their crops. For drinking and other domestic purposes, households largely depended on spring water.
At the study sites, people also depended on non-agricultural income sources such as tourist services and remittances (Table 2). A local cheese factory in Gatlang, hydropower station in Chilime, and handcrafts in Goljung and Thumen were additional sources of local livelihoods. In Gatlang, around 10% households were involved in providing tourist services, including homestays, food, and guiding trekking for tourists. Men from eight households (2% of total households) were employed in the local cheese factory. In Goljung and Thumen, women operated small cottage handcraft businesses such as making and selling traditional caps, carpets, shawls, and sweaters.
In Gatlang, currently, almost 50% of households have sent migrants to other parts of Nepal (Table 2), particularly Kathmandu, and overseas to search for opportunities to earn more income. Nearly 20% of all migrant sending households here sent workers overseas. In Goljung, Thuman, and Grey, 15–25% households have sent migrants to other parts of the country and overseas. Among migrant sending households, only 4–5% households in Goljung, and 30% both in Thuman and Grey sent migrants overseas, mainly to Malaysia. Out-migration has declined significantly in Thuman VDC because of new job opportunities after opening of the Rasuwa-Kerung point of entry at the Nepal-China border, a growing business port. The Tamang Heritage Trail, a new trekking route, also passes through Thuman village, increasing revenue from tourist services. Of all the study sites, Chilime VDC has the lowest rate of out-migration. Besides, out-migrants are returning to the area because of employment opportunities at a local hydro-power station, and in vegetable farming and the tourist industry. There are also several guest houses and resorts in Thambuchet village of Chilime VDC, where employees of the power station and tourists stay, as well as some shops.
Despite the income from the (high) out-migration and other non-farm income activities, a significant proportion of households in the study sites still mainly depends on agriculture and livestock for their food security and livelihood. In Gatlang, this is the case with almost 70% of the households. As per the assessment (mid-November 2015 to mid-March 2016) of Nepal Food Security Monitoring System, Gatlang, Goljung and Thuman VDCs were categorized as ‘stressed areas’ in terms of food insecurity level i.e. these study areas are highly vulnerable to food and nutrition insecurity (GoN-WFP 2016). An aggregated assessment of two VDCs, Gatlang and Chilime, showed that 46% of the population in these VDCs faced food poverty, and half of the children under 5 years of age were stunted (Table 3). Likewise, the prevalence of wasting and underweight was, respectively, 14 and 37% in children below 5 years of age. Food poverty and malnutrition in Gatlang and Chilime VDCs was significantly greater than the average for the Rasuwa district (Table 3).
Table 3 Food security in study areas: example of Gatlang and Chilme Agriculture and livestock
Households cultivate traditional food crops such as local maize, millets, buckwheat, local beans, lentils, and barley (Table 4), which are rich in micronutrients (Adhikari et al. 2017). This is understandable, since high mountain areas are more suitable for these climate-resilient traditional crops than rice and vegetables. However, farmers also cultivate potato and other vegetables as food and cash crops (Table 4). During the peak tourist season (April–June), tourists staying in these areas are served with dishes prepared from these traditional food crops. Although they are mainly cultivated for home consumption, surplus produce is sold at the markets of Chilime, Saybrubesi, Dunche, and Kathmandu.
Table 4 Agriculture and livestock Gatlang and Thuman are high-altitude VDCs (Table 1), which are more suitable for traditional food crops. In Thuman, livestock is more important than crops for income generation. In Gatlang, the main income-generating crops are potato, barley, and local species of beans. Farmers reported that, on average, each household sells 40 bags of potato (50 kg/bag) every year, resulting in an approximate gross income of Rs. (Nepali Rupees) 53,000 (US$ 500) per annum at a price of Rs 23–28/kg [US$ 0.22–0.26]). Likewise, households earn a good income from local beans and barley, ranging from Rs 15,000–25,000 (US$ 142–236) per annum per household.
Notably, all agricultural production is organic – no artificial fertilizers or pesticides are used and most of it depends on rainfall for water and animal power for ploughing. Therefore, production costs are low and in the form of family labour and home-kept seed. All types of agricultural activities, except ploughing, are usually done by female members of the household.
In Gatlang, local people reported that the high out-migration rate has resulted in labour shortages in agriculture with an increase in the agricultural labour burden on women. However, such labour shortages are not reported from other study sites. In Gatlang, some farmers are cultivating vegetables such as tomato and cucumber in plastic tunnels. In total, ten plastic tunnels were observed, all constructed with external support from NGOs after the April 2015 earthquake. One female tunnel farmer reported that none of the tunnel farmers were producing vegetables for a commercial purpose. They are mainly consuming them locally.
In Grey, too, mainly traditional food crops are being cultivated. However, some farmers also grow vegetables such as cauliflower and potato. The farmers’ group reported that around 20% households mainly depend on agriculture for their food security and livelihood.
Goljung, situated at a lower altitude (1800 m above mean sea level; Table 1), is also suitable for rice cultivation. Some traditional high-altitude crops such as buckwheat, barley, and finger millets are not grown in this area. Nearly 20% of agricultural land remains fallow due to the lack of a functional irrigation system and labour shortages during the critical periods of sowing.
In Chilime, the presence of a small-scale irrigation system provides more flexibility and a greater range to farmers in terms of the type of crops they cultivate. Thanks to a good water supply for agriculture, rice is grown on 127 roans (6.5 ha). In addition, potato, barley, millets, and vegetables are cultivated. Among the vegetables, carrot, cucumber, radish, chilli, spinach, cabbage, cauliflower, onion, and garlic are income-generating crops together with rice, black lentils, and potato.
In view of the income potential from vegetable production, some local people established a vegetable production group in Thambuchet, the headquarters of Chilime VDC (Box 1).
Box 1 Vegetable Production and Marketing Group in Thambuchet
A discussion with a vegetable production and marketing group (VPMG) was organized to explore the potential of vegetable production and income in the Chilime VDC. This VPMG includes 32 households, and is collectively marketing their vegetables locally and in other areas such as Syabrubesi and Dunche. The group wants to make Chilime a centre for vegetable cultivation. They highlighted the economic benefits of collective production and marketing activities, giving tomatoes as an example. The group sold tomatoes at a price of Rs 100–120/kg (US$ 0.94–1.13) to markets with better prices. This is 2–3 times higher than the normal price individual farmers get from middlemen. The group grows radish, carrot, cucumber, cabbage, cauliflower, spinach, and red chili. The male members recognize the need to have more women’s participation in their group, as they say they value gender equality and social inclusion. They plan to buy a small delivery van for delivery of vegetables to the market. A collection centre for vegetables is also going to be established by this group in Thambuchet.
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Livestock is also an important source of food and income. In Gatlang, chauri is the most important livestock for this high-altitude area because of its resilience to severe cold and fodder stress. Households have constructed 40 small shelters for chauri and yak herds in the high-altitude areas of the VDC, where at least 40 male members of households stay to take care of livestock. They bring chauri/yaks to the nearby Sangen pasture for grazing. (Sangen is a big pastureland that extends into Tibet and is shared by Gatlang, Goljung, and Grey settlements.) This is one reason why female members must carry out agricultural work in the absence of male members. During the winter months, snow covers the pasture lands, and households use dried crop residues as fodder for livestock. Chauri are a good source of income for households (See Box 2).
Box 2 Income from Sale of Chauri Milk in Gatlang
The Dairy Development Corporation (DDC) of Nepal established a cheese factory in Gatlang in 1977. This factory is still operating and providing a good income to local livestock farmers. The factory produces 9000–11,000 kg of cheese and 3000 kg of butter per annum. This requires the supply of nearly 90,000 L of milk per annum from Gatlang livestock farmers. Farmers are not only meeting this milk demand but also saving sufficient milk for family consumption. The price of milk is determined by the factory, based on the fat content of the milk. On average, Rs. (Nepali Rupees) 54/L (US$ 0.51) is being paid to milk suppliers. Overall, 40 chauri farmers supply almost 250 L of milk per day to the factory, and per household the annual gross income from milk sales is nearly Rs. 121,500 (US$ 1146). Thus, chauri farmers earn over Rs 10,000 (US$ 94) per month from the sale of milk.
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In Thuman, biophysical and agro-ecological conditions are similar to those in Gatlang. However, in addition to chauri and goat, households raise cow, sheep, and buffalo. They sell live animals to markets in Syabrubesi. Chauri farmers sell their surplus milk for about Rs 50–55/l (US$ 0.47–0.52) to the private cheese factory there.
In Goljung and Grey, chauri/yak are not part of the livestock mix, as they are high-altitude livestock requiring large pasturelands, mostly found at altitudes of 2500 m or above (Table 4). In Grey, there is also a District Development Committee milk collection centre to which cow farmers sell their surplus milk.
Water resources and irrigation systems
Rasuwa District, situated in the wet mountain ranges of Nepal, is rich in water resources in terms of springs, snowmelt water, glaciers, and rainfall. These create numerous small streams and feed several large rivers (Chilime, Trishuli). At the study sites, the sources and amounts of water (rainfall and snow) are broadly similar, but their use and management vary significantly. This section explores the similarities and differences across the five study sites.
The first three sites, Gatlang, Goljung, and Chilime VDCs, share a common watershed.
Gatlang
In Gatlang, the main water source is the Parvati Kunda (small lake or pond), which is located at an altitude of 2610 m above mean sea level. This pond is situated at a higher attitude than the Gatlang settlement and its agricultural fields. It is fed by water from four springs as well as snowmelt and rainfall in its catchment area. In Winter, the watershed is covered with snow for 3 months (December–February); the pond receives snowmelt water from February to April.
The pond has cultural and religious significance and many people come to it for festivals throughout the year. Pipes constructed by individuals and the village carry drinking water from the pond to them. A ferro-cement tank was constructed below the pond, but above Gatlang village, to store drinking water. The extra water from the pond flows through the village. This water is also used for livestock and to operate water mills for grinding cereals. Only three mills still operate, a reduction from the six that had been operating earlier. This may reflect a reduction in the flow of water.
Water from this pond is currently not being used for agriculture in Gatlang. Local farmers believe that there is a huge potential to use this water for irrigation to diversify cropping systems, but at present, they say they are not interested in doing this. They said that the water requirements of their current cropping systems, mainly traditional crops, were adequately met by rainfall and snowfall. They also reported that they could cultivate rice in the lower areas of the village if they had an irrigation system, but it would be more feasible to continue traditional cropping because the agro-ecology of the area suits these crops. They are resilient to cold waves and water stress, and do not require inorganic fertilizers.
There is also potential to use the pond water for raising trout, a profitable enterprise. But the religious significance of the Parvati Kunda precludes this and may also be a factor in the lack of interest in irrigation. Speculatively, this religious belief may also serve to limit over-exploitation of the stream, which would otherwise affect the downstream communities (e.g., Goljung and Chilime).
Goljung
In Goljung, drinking water comes from springs. After the 2015 earthquakes, there was a shortage of drinking water because some springs dried up due to seismological impacts. However, after the 2015 and 2016 monsoons, these springs are flowing again.
A small-scale irrigation system was constructed in 1990 with the support of the District Development Committee (DDC) under the Ministry of Local Development. After operating for a year, the main canal was damaged by road construction related to the construction of the Chilime hydropower dam. There were some political issues which prevented its rehabilitation, and the community members failed to obtain support from either the hydropower project or the government to get it repaired. However, they continued their efforts to have the irrigation system rehabilitated. The Irrigation Department recently undertook a detailed feasibility study and approved this project to be implemented in 2017. When completed, the system would irrigate 1500–2000 ropanis (76.5–102 ha).
Two rivers, the Gatlang and the larger snow-fed Sangen, flow into the hydropower reservoir. Diverting water to their irrigation system may reduce the dry season flow in the reservoir somewhat. Even without this irrigation system, Goljung farmers cultivate a variety of crops, and have also resurrected their traditional, non-agricultural, income practices, particularly handcrafts, to support their livelihoods.
Chilime
In Chilime, there is also a small-scale irrigation system, the Dalang Irrigation System, in Wards 2 and 3 of the VDC. A focus group discussion with members of the water user association was organized to investigate water and governance issues in detail. A canal was built using concrete in 1991 with support from the Department of Irrigation. The system irrigates about 127 ropanis (6.5 ha) of land operated by 30 households. There is a small canal that carries water from two temporary dams constructed in the river using stone and gravel in upstream areas. These small dams are fed by both the Bemdang River and Paravti Kunda (also known here as Gatlang Khola).
The system is currently not registered with any government agency and is managed informally by the farmers. They cultivate a wide range of cereals and vegetables (Table 4), but face water shortages during the winter months (December–February). They reported that the water flow increased significantly in March–May, which shows the system is fed by snowmelt water.
Farmers maintain the system through collective action: they clean and repair the dam and canals together, particularly in mid-June because during this period they all need water at the same time to cultivate rice. They do not collect funds for maintenance but users contribute labour. On average, each household that cultivates rice, contributes 2 days of labour. When major maintenance is required, they seek external funding from the VDC, the Chilime hydropower project, or other sources. In the past, the hydropower company provided some financial support for rehabilitation of the system.
There is no formal mechanism for water distribution among the farmers. Everyone tries to get water simultaneously during critical periods. The fields located at the tail end of the canal face water shortages, and occasionally there are conflicts. Farmers reported they try to resolve such conflicts through mutual discussion and a decision to allocate water to head and tail farmers following an agreed time schedule. For example, tail farmers may be given the right to use water during day time, and head farmers during the night. It may also be the other way around.
Thuman
In Thuman VDC, all 250 households are involved in agriculture and livestock raising. They cultivate local rice and other crops (Table 4). The main source of water for agriculture is rainfall. There are also small-scale irrigation systems, which are mainly fed by spring water and irrigate approximately 1200 ropanis (61 ha) of land. The irrigation water is mainly used for rice cultivation. For other crops, such as lentils, barley, millets, potato, and local beans, farmers rely on rainfall.
Grey
Grey also had an irrigation system; it was constructed by the DDC around 20 years ago. It did not function because of community conflict and faulty alignment of the main canal. For example, when water was required to irrigate the rice fields on the lower terraces, the upstream farmers refused to allow the water to flow through. Farmers reported that such conflicts have been very frequent over the years. Currently, rice fields in Grey are irrigated from a nearby river source through a high-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipe. This pipe system irrigates nearly 100 ropanis (5.1 ha) of agricultural land and is operated by 15 households.
There is still no formal water distribution system, and sometimes there are conflicts over water. The group highlighted one key point: open, canal-based irrigation systems are not sustainable in Grey and other steep mountain areas. They are too vulnerable to damage from landslides and erosion during the monsoon. Closed, pipe-based irrigation systems are more sustainable and reliable - a point confirmed by the District Irrigation Engineer in Dhunche. These pipes can also be moved to other areas if necessary.
Local people’s perception of climatic variability and change
At all study sites, local people had perceived changes in climate over the past 10 years (Table 5). In Gatlang, people reported they had observed changes in precipitation patterns over time. Ten years earlier, the village used to receive higher snowfall, both in frequency and amount. People also reported an increase in the incidence of erratic rainfall events, particularly in 2004–2014. However, rainfall patterns were considered ‘normal’ in 2015 and 2016. People also had observed that winters are now colder and summers warmer than 10 years ago.
Table 5 Local people’s perceptions of climate change In Goljung, people noticed more variability in rainfall patterns and increased incidence of erratic events. They also perceived an increase in the number of foggy days in winter over the last 10 years, and an increase in the number of hailstorms. Similar to Gatlang and Goljung, people in Chilime also reported changes in rainfall patterns and temperature over time. Summers are hotter and winters colder. In the last 18 years, they observed only two snowfall events, both in the same year. In Thuman, people perceived changes in rainfall patterns, and reported hotter summers and colder winters than 10 years before. In Grey, local people reported an increase in the incidence of erratic rainfall.
Perceived impacts of climatic variability and change, and coping and adaptation measures
In Gatlang, people said they had not perceived any obvious change in the availability of water in Parvati Kunda during the last 10 to 15 years in response to climate change (Table 6). The productivity of potato and barley increased in the last 2 years (2015 and 2016). Local people attributed this improvement to more normal rainfall patterns. But before 2015, changes in rainfall patterns had resulted in a lower production of potato and barley, particularly during 2010–2014.
Table 6 Perceived impacts of climatic variability and change on water resources, and coping and adaptation measures Over the years, farmers developed indigenous mechanisms to cope with short-term and inter-annual variability in climatic conditions. During periods of water stress, resulting from unpredictable rainfall, farmers mainly cultivated alternative food crops such as millets, local beans, and lentils. These crops require less water and are more resilient to water stress. They also earned income from these crops through sales to local resorts in Gatlang, Chilime and Syabrubesi.
As we have seen, migration is an important source of off-farm income for the mountain communities in Rasuwa. With increasing tourism and work opportunities in cities and abroad, around 30–40% households have also started some off-farm work or business, e.g., being tourist guides, constructing resorts for tourists, and out-migration to city centres for work. This means migration has become an alternative source of income during periods of reduced agricultural production resulting from climatic stresses.
Besides, about ten farmers have started cultivating tomato and cucumber in plastic ‘tunnels’ (simple mini-greenhouses). They collect water from springs in water tanks and take it by gravity to the tunnels through small-diameter HDPE pipes. At present, tunnel production is for home use and tunnels are constructed primarily with support from NGOs to diversify income opportunities for villagers. However, people perceive this as a future option for coping with water variability. For this, they say, they need external support for the supply of plastic and other materials.
In Gatlang, climate change has not had any severe impacts on pasturelands, and livestock production, particularly of chauri, has not been affected. This encourages the villagers to keep raising chauri, which is profitable, given the presence of the local cheese factory.
In Goljung, changes in rainfall patterns have negatively affected the productivity of almost all crops. Erratic hailstorm events also pose threats to crop productivity (Table 6). For example in 2016, a heavy hailstorm damaged standing crops, resulting in a reduction of the paddy production by nearly 30%. An increase in the number of foggy days has had negative impacts on potato production and local livelihoods, because potato is the main cash crop.
There is also an increase in the incidence of pest attacks on crops. Local people attributed this to prolonged dry spells, because rainfall reduces pest attacks to some degree.
Similarly to Gatlang, to cope with the impacts of climate change, people are increasing their non-agricultural income activities, and strengthening the integration of livestock with production systems.
In Chilime, local people reported a decline in rainfed crop productivity (Table 6). This was attributed to changing rainfall patterns. In irrigation, the main water stress period is mid-January to February (winter period), when there is snow in the mountains and less rainfall is received. There is an increase in water availability in the canal from mid-April to mid-May because of a higher snow melting rate in upstream areas. During the severest water stress period (mid-January to February), on the other hand, water in the system is barely sufficient for vegetable farming and the operation of a water mill. With increased availability of water for irrigation during the summer months, farmers diversify their crops through the integration of vegetables and rice.
In Thuman and Grey, local people reported a decline in crop productivity and attributed it to changing rainfall patterns. At both sites, farmers are cultivating traditional crops such as lentils, barley, millets, potato, and beans, which are more resilient to water stress (Table 6). They are also strengthening their livestock production as an income source, to compensate for the declining income from crops.