Introduction

This study examines the implementation of Japanese inclusive education in the context of international cooperation. In 2015, the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) launched the project for Strengthening Teachers’ Ability and Reasonable Treatments for Children with Disabilities (START) in collaboration with the Mongolian government. This project holds great significance, because it showcases the recent efforts exerted by Japan in international education cooperation in basic education.

Previously, Japan’s efforts in education cooperation were primarily directed toward higher and vocational education and technical training instead of basic education (Ishida & Okitsu, 2022, p. 127; Kuroda & Hayashi, 2015, pp. 40–41). The main objective was to support the modernization and economic development of recipient countries. However, the Japanese government exercised caution in engaging with basic education due to concerns related to previous colonial wrongdoing and potential interference in nation-building efforts. During the 1970s and 1980s, basic education cooperation mainly involved the dispatch of experts in science education, which was deemed relatively value-neutral and did not require advanced foreign language proficiency (Ishihara & Kawaguchi, 2022, pp. 102–105). Additionally, efforts were exerted to construct educational infrastructure such as schools and training centers.

Nevertheless, the Japanese government has intensified its international cooperation in basic education since the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) introduced education for all in 1990 (Ishihara & Kawaguchi, 2022, pp. 106–110). Moreover, it has broadened its expert dispatch program to encompass mathematics education and introduced child-centered pedagogy, which emphasizes group activities and prioritizes teacher training.Footnote 1 Ongoing efforts to enhance the capabilities of teachers have been pursued since the 2000s with the START project forming an integral part of this expansion.

During the 2010s, the Japanese government adopted the education for human security policy. The Japanese Education Cooperation Policy 2011–2015 highlights inclusive education as a key component for creating a school for all (Ministry of Foreign Affairs Japan, 2015). Accordingly, the emphasis of Japanese education cooperation has shifted from teacher training to the improvement of the learning environment of students and the prioritization of equality and inclusion as fundamental principles (Ishihara & Kawaguchi, 2022, p. 121). The START project was launched within this context.

To fully examine the development and characteristics of START, however, not only analyzing transformations in Japan’s international cooperation but also gaining insight into the advancement and limitations of Japanese inclusive education is crucial (Chu, 2009; Ito et al., 2023; Park, 2006). This aspect is particularly important, because the concept of inclusive education in Japan may not align entirely with its interpretation in international contexts.

The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities defines “inclusive education” as the practice “where students of all abilities learn together in the same classroom” by “creating an education system where everyone can learn together and have their individual needs met” (United Nations, 2016, p. 2).Footnote 2 Previous studies also assert that inclusive education denotes providing all students, regardless of disabilities, with quality education in age-appropriate general classes and covering the full core curriculum (Alquraini & Gut, 2012; Bui et al., 2010).

Meanwhile, Japan recognizes that separating students on the basis of disabilities can be considered a form of inclusive education (Itō, 2019; Yoon, 2017). Article 24(2) of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities states that “persons with disabilities are not excluded from the general education system on the basis of disability” (United Nations, 2006). However, the Japanese government interprets general education system to mean not only the same educational environment for students with and without disabilities but also the education system as a whole (Harada, 2016, pp. 77–78). Consequently, inclusive education in Japan is defined as the provision of diverse education options to children with disabilities (CWD). Even if these children receive education in special needs classes or schools, the government continues to emphasize that CWD are included in access to free compulsory primary and secondary education.

The interpretation and implementation of inclusive education can differ across countries, which underscores the importance of acknowledging this diversity in the analysis of international education cooperation. However, the existing research on international education cooperation frequently overlooks the examination of the education systems of donor and recipient countries. Instead, it solely focuses on evaluating the effectiveness of international cooperation policies (Chung & Park, 2013; Lei & Myers, 2011; Yates, 2020). To gain a more holistic understanding, considering the nuances of inclusive education within individual donor and recipient countries, including perspectives and approaches toward international cooperation, is imperative.

This study aims to investigate the reflection of the dualistic aspects of Japanese inclusive education on the START project in Mongolia. It provides an overview of the current state and characteristics of inclusive education in Japan and Mongolia followed by an in-depth examination of the implementation of the project. The objective is to demonstrate that although the START project draws inspiration from separatist and social approaches observed in Japan, its successful implementation relies on the initiatives of Mongolian stakeholders who adapt Japanese approaches to their unique contexts.

Method

This research is an extended case study of START, which aims to elucidate the impact of inclusive education in Japan on the education system in Mongolia. The majority of data collection occurred between April and October 2022, during which restrictions due to the COVID-19 pandemic hindered field research in both countries. Moreover, access to Mongolian sources was limited due to the language barrier. Recognizing these limitations, the authors thoroughly reviewed the primary and secondary documents available in the Japanese and English languages related to the project and inclusive education in both countries.

First, this study reviewed the literature in Japan on primary and secondary education (Cave, 2007, 2016; LeTendre, 1994; Shimizu, 1992; Slater, 2009; Tobin et.al, 2009) as well as special needs education (Arimatsu, 2013; Chu, 2009; Futaba, 2016; Harada, 2016; Harada et al., 2020; Itō, 2019; Ito et al., 2023; Katagiri, 2009; Kimura, 2015; McGuire, 2020; Mithout, 2016; Park, 2006; Yagata, 2019; Yoon, 2017; Yoshitoshi & Takahashi, 2023). Subsequently, efforts were exerted to establish connections between the educational ideologies and practices promoted by the START project and the key features of basic and inclusive education in Japan.

Second, this study relied on papers and reports published by individual researchers and international organizations, such as the Asian Development Bank, UNESCO, and UNICEF, to gain insights into educational policies for CWD in Mongolia (Batkhishig, 2017; Khurelbaatar, 2020; Liijuu-Ochir & Huggins, 2023; Odgerel, 2021; Save the Children Japan, 2022; Schelzig & Newman, 2020; UNESCO, 2020; UNICEF, 2021). However, whenever possible, we made every effort to locate data from the Mongolian government (Ministry of Labor & Social Protection, 2019, 2022). While the 2019 White Paper on Disability was available in English, we utilized the 2022 edition with the assistance of a Mongolian-native graduate student who provided translations for the education chapter of the document.

Third, to elucidate the START project, the study examined a preliminary survey report on inclusive education in Mongolia (JICA, 2014), an endline survey of the project (KRC, 2019) and result reports (JICA & KRC, 2019; START, 2019a, 2019b, 2019c). It also referred to research articles published by Japanese experts involved in START (Suzuki et al., 2018; Tajima et al., 2023; Uehara et al., 2018). Additionally, this research consulted the web pages, Facebook pages, and newsletters generated by JICA and the START implementation team. Furthermore, it examined previous education cooperation projects of JICA in Mongolia (JICA, 2009, JICA, 2019; JICA & KRC, 2013) to determine the educational culture of the country.

While reviewing the three types of research materials, the authors engaged in weekly discussion sessions between June and August 2022, which facilitated individual interpretations. One author focused on examining the process and implementation of START, while the other author contextualized the project within the broader development of the international cooperation of Japan and the ideal practices of its basic education. Subsequently, they crosschecked their respective writings and rectified any errors and points of misunderstanding that emerged during the review process. The data used in this study are publicly available; thus, the authors do not anticipate any ethical concerns emerging from this study.

Dualistic characteristics of Japanese inclusive education

Japan’s approach to education for CWD is primarily based on a separatist model, which assumes that the needs of CWD can be individually understood from a medical perspective. The School Education Act of 1947 allowed CWD to receive education in special schools and special and general classes. However, students were frequently placed in special schools or classes based on the type and degree of disability instead of specific learning needs (Yoshitoshi & Takahashi, 2023, pp. 1258–1259). This separatist approach persisted even when Japan made education mandatory for all people with disabilities in 1979.

In 2007, the terminology was changed from special class/school to special needs class/school in facilities catering to CWD (Arimatsu, 2013, pp. 42–46). However, the needs of individual students continued to be defined primarily through medical diagnoses instead of being respected and recognized through the lens of education. Consequently, the ideology of special needs education, which prioritizes meeting the educational needs of CWD and their guardians, was only partially realized in Japan (Yoshitoshi & Takahashi, 2023).

In 2012, the Japanese government announced the promotion of inclusive education to foster a more symbiotic society. The Report on the Promotion of Special Needs Education for the Establishment of an Inclusive Education System for the Formation of a Symbiotic Society aimed to “create an inclusive education system where all students could learn together in the same place” while recognizing the challenges that accompany this goal (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, MEXT, 2012). The report acknowledged that although “educating every child in the same classroom may seem equal, CWD may not have equal opportunities for healthy development and appropriate education, hindering their future participation in society.” Consequently, the report called for the “sincere pursuit of special needs education” by “providing diverse options for learning, including general classes, special needs classes, and special needs schools in primary and early secondary education.”

In recent years, the Japanese education system has seemingly become increasingly inclusive. The enrollment of CWD in general classes increased from 45,240 in 2007 to 77,822 in 2013 and further to 164,697 in 2020 (MEXT, 2023, pp. 46–47). However, this increase is due to the labeling of children who are attending regular schools as having developmental disorders instead of admitting previously excluded students (Mithout, 2016, p. 174). Table 1 illustrates a slight increase in the enrollment of children with visual, auditory, and physical impairments, whereas a substantial growth is evident among children with autism, learning disorders, and attention deficits. Nevertheless, Japanese schools and teachers are ill-prepared to meet the educational needs of CWD in mainstream classrooms (Ito et al., 2023).

Table 1 Number of children with disability (CWD) enrolled in regular classrooms by disability type
Full size table

Meanwhile, despite the decreasing student population, Japan witnessed increases in the establishment of special needs schools and classes and the number of students enrolled in these institutions. Specifically, the number of special needs schools has increased from 1103 in 2007 to 1160 in 2021 accompanied by an increase in student enrollment from 108,173 to 146,285 (MEXT, 2023, pp. 15–16). Additionally, a significant surge occurred during this period in the number of special needs classes and enrollment of children in these classes, which increased from 37,941 and 113,377 to 73,145 and 326,457, respectively (MEXT, 2023, p. 42). In other words, despite the declaration of inclusive education, the country has only slightly departed from the separatist approach.

Nevertheless, an alternative model known as gengakyūhoshō or original class guarantee movement exists in Japan. This social model emphasizes fostering relationships among students and teachers within a general classroom setting in which all students learn together irrespective of disability (Futaba, 2016; Katagiri, 2009; Kimura, 2015). In this model, assistant teachers are present in the general classroom to support students with disabilities, which eliminates the need for segregation in special needs classes.

The Original Class Guarantee Movement gained traction in a few municipalities in Osaka Prefecture during the mid-1970s (Harada et al., 2020, pp. 26–28). This was due to the convergence of the Buraku Liberation Movement, which aimed to eliminate the discrimination of residents considered descendants of pre-modern outcastes known as Burakumin, and the Original Class Guarantee Movement. Both shared a common goal to liberate the discriminated. They emphasized the creation of a supportive community around disadvantaged children; in this context, class members understand the challenges of students, which enables them to achieve self-realization within an inclusive environment.

Indeed, prioritizing community building is a fundamental practice in Japanese educational settings. Preschool, primary, and secondary education in Japan emphasize the development of students into fully engaged community members (Cave, 2007, 2016; Shimizu, 1992; Slater, 2009; Tobin et al., 2009). Instead of solely imparting knowledge, Japanese teachers encourage students to identify their tasks and solutions through group activities.Footnote 3 Daily routines, such as classroom cleaning, and special events, such as cultural festivals and sports days, instill in students the value of acting as members of a group regardless of personal preferences. Consequently, teachers endeavor to attend to the needs of CWD and address their challenges within the context of the daily activities of the entire class (Yagata, 2019, pp. 19–20).

In summary, Japanese inclusive education reflects the separatist and social models of education for CWD. The separatist model posits that the needs of CWD are best addressed through individualized education tailored to specific diagnoses and degrees of disability. Meanwhile, the social model argues that disability emerges from an environment that fails to accommodate the functional challenges faced by CWD. Therefore, certain schools in Japan endeavor to create inclusive environments in which students learn together regardless of their disabilities.

Education for CWD in Mongolia: current status and challenges

Laws and systems for the education of CWD in Mongolia

The Mongolian government proposed the Master Plan for Development of Education (2006–2015) to align the standards of the Mongolian education system with international ones (Khurelbaatar, 2020, p. 124; Suzuki et al., 2018, p. 149). Primary education underwent changes in 2008 to shift the start age of students to 6 years; by 2015, the 10-year system had transitioned into a 12-year system. As of 2019, the net enrollment rates for elementary and middle schools reached 98.3% and 85.7%, respectively (UNESCO, n.d.), which indicates successful access to basic education for the majority of children in Mongolia.

The Mongolian government has promoted inclusive education through laws and systems since the 2000s (Kameyama et al., 2017, p. 19). For example, the 2006 revision of the Law on Education (Article 5.1.4) prohibits discrimination based on “origin, language, race, age, gender, unique developmental characteristics, health, social status, wealth, employment status, job position, religion, and opinion” (Schelzig & Newman, 2020, p. 13). In the same year, the revised Law on Primary and Secondary Education (Article 13.3 and 13.12) mandated that “other secondary education schools must provide conditions to educate children with disabilities,” and “teachers and social workers that work with children with disabilities can use methodology suitable for specific needs of children” (Save the Children Japan, 2022, p. 68). Additionally, the 2008 revised Law on Preschool Education (Article 9.9) allows for “up to 2 children with mild forms of disabilities” to “study in regular kindergarten class.”

The 2016 Law on the Human Rights of Persons with Disabilities ensures equal access to education and training for teachers (Liijuu-Ochir & Huggins, 2023, p. 240). Specifically, Articles 14 and 15 of the Law state that “people with disabilities shall be entitled to have an equal access to education and vocational education as all other citizens and all educational institutes shall ensure user-friendly learning environments for people with disabilities.” Meanwhile, Article 16.2 stipulates that “teachers and social workers of educational institutions of all levels shall have knowledge and skill of training methodology that meet the specific needs and requirements of students with disabilities.” These laws reflect Mongolia’s commitment to provide an inclusive educational environment.

Furthermore, the Mongolian Ministry of Education and Science has established resolutions and regulations to ensure the implementation of these laws. Enacted in March 2018, Ordinance A/155 mandates Individual Education Plans (IEPs) for all CWD, while Ordinance A/425 (June 2018) requires promotion and graduation based on the development and progress of CWD (Ministry of Labor & Social Protection, 2019, p. 48).Footnote 4 As of 2019, the Procedure on Inclusive Learning Opportunities for Children with Disabilities at Compulsory Education Schools ensures the allocation of three times more financial resources to education for CWD than those for their peers (Liijuu-Ochir & Huggins, 2023, p. 240). Moreover, Ordinance A/296 (2020) provides additional payment to teachers and assistants working with CWD (Save the Children Japan, 2022, p. 68). Lastly, Ordinance A/177 (2021) outlines the procedures for incorporating CWD into preschool education (Ministry of Labor & Social Protection, 2022).

Status of education for children with disabilities in Mongolia

However, Liijuu-Ochir and Huggins (2023, pp. 240–243) note that Mongolian schools typically lack the necessary human resource, funding, and suitable environment for inclusive education. Despite the 2016 Law on Human Rights of Persons with Disabilities, teachers and social workers receive limited training in inclusive education.Footnote 5 The level of awareness of the requirement for IEPs, as outlined in Ordinance A/155, is low among teachers. Thus, limited financial resources prevent schools from covering expenses such as learning materials, wheelchair-accessible buildings, and additional allowances for teachers working with CWD.

This gap between educational policy and implementation hinders equal education for CWD in Mongolia. According to the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection (2022), the attendance rate of CWD in preschool education has increased from 59% in academic year 2019–2020 to 63% in academic year 2021–2022 (Ministry of Labor & Social Protection, 2022). However, compared with the national average of 68%, only 59% of children with disabilities aged 2 to 4 years attend preschools (UNICEF, 2021, p. 5). This disparity in access to early childhood education influences the transition to elementary school in Mongolia (Kameyama, 2021).

Additionally, CWD exhibited lower attendance rates in primary and secondary schools. Out of a total of 8351 CWD aged 6 to 18 years, 6518 (78%) were enrolled in primary and secondary schools during academic year 2018–2019 (Ministry of Labor & Social Protection, 2019, p. 49). During academic year 2019–2020, the corresponding percentage slightly decreased to 76.7% (6301 out of 8209; Tajima et al., 2023, p. 721). The most recent UNICEF (2021, p. 65) survey also revealed that enrollment rates for CWD remain lower than those of their non-disabled peers, which ranges from 6% in elementary school to 13% in middle school. This disparity in enrollment is particularly pronounced in middle school, which discourages CWD from pursuing education beyond the compulsory stage.

Meanwhile, approximately three-fourth of the Mongolian CWD enrolled in the school system attend regular schools. Out of the 6208 CWD enrolled in the school system, 4525 (72.9%) and 1683 (27.1%) attended regular and special needs schools, respectively, in academic year 2021–2022 (Ministry of Labor & Social Protection, 2022). However, the high proportion of CWD attending regular schools is due to the limited number of special needs schools in Mongolia instead of the systematic implementation of inclusive education. For example, only six special needs schools in Ulaanbaatar cater to students with hearing, visual, and intellectual impairments (Schelzig & Newman, 2020, p. 5). In the late 1980s, 26 government-funded special needs schools were established across the country, but only those in the capital remained after the transition to a market economy (Batkhishig, 2017, p. 15). This scenario limited opportunities for CWD living in rural areas to attend special needs schools despite a number of schools that offered dormitories.

In addition, inconsistency exists in how regular schools address the needs of CWD. Certain schools are unwilling to accept additional CWD following the retirement of a principal who embraced inclusive education or the relocation of a teacher in charge of inclusive education (JICA, 2014, p. 71). Although teachers generally agree with educating children with special needs, including CWD, in regular schools, they want these children to be taught in special needs classes (Save the Children Japan, 2022, pp. 37–38). A number of teachers even requested the parents of CWD to transfer their children to special needs schools for discriminatory reasons (Liijuu-Ochir & Huggins, 2023, pp. 244–245).

Furthermore, societal stigma toward special needs education leads guardians and CWD to opt for regular schools, which are frequently ill-equipped to provide inclusive education tailored to individual needs. According to JICA (2014, p. 60), “many guardians send their children to regular schools due to deep-rooted prejudice against special needs schools, even though the children may not receive necessary assistance.” Thus, despite the seemingly inclusive situation, the Mongolian education system struggles to adequately meet the special educational needs of CWD.

Prior to the START project of JICA, therefore, Mongolia faced two major challenges in education for CWD (JICA, 2014, pp. 77–80). The first pertained to a concern regarding educational capacity, which encompasses the lack of curriculum and textbooks tailored for CWD and inadequate teacher training for those working with CWD. The second referred to the issue of accessibility in which CWD lack sufficient access to school education. The determination of CWD status was inaccurate, and the connection between medical and educational institutions was weak. Additionally, the practice of special needs education was inconsistent across schools.

Outline of Strengthening Teachers’ Ability and Reasonable Treatments for children with disabilities (START) and its outcome

Overview of START

The START project is the first cooperation between Japan and Mongolia that aims to promote inclusive education for CWD in Mongolia. In response to requests from the Mongolian Ministry of Education and Science and the Ministry of Population and Social Protection (JICA, 2016, p. 1), JICA implemented the first phase of the project from August 2015 to July 2019. Subsequently, the second phase commenced in September 2020 and is scheduled to end in January 2024.

The primary objective of the first phase was to create “a model for diagnosis, development support, and education for children with disabilities,” which intends to ensure that “all children with disabilities receive development support and education services that meet their individual needs” (JICA & KRC, 2019, pp. 1–2). JICA set the following outputs for this project: (1) enhance the capacity for early diagnosis and development support for CWD in pilot areas, (2) provide high-quality education for CWD, including those with intellectual disabilities in pilot schools, (3) verify various educational activities to meet the needs of CWD through mini projects, and (4) share the abovementioned outputs among stakeholders and incorporate them into national systems and policies.

The first phase of START was implemented in Bayangol District in Ulaanbaatar City and Khuvsgul Province as pilot areas (JICA & KRC, 2019, pp. 1–2). Four special needs schools in Ulaanbaatar and ten regular schools (eight in Ulaanbaatar and two in Khuvsgul) were selected as pilot schools for developing educational models for CWD. Mongolian ministries and institutions involved in education, health, and social protection collaborated to achieve the objectives of the project.

The second phase of START aims to extend the scope of its first phase activities by providing development support and educational services for CWD aged 2 to 16 years throughout Mongolia.Footnote 6 The following outputs were set: (1) enhance the capacity of the education staff of branch committees (for the health, education, and social protection of CWD) across the country, (2) develop the implementation base (e.g., systems, plans, and personnel) for providing development support and educational services for CWD in kindergartens nationwide, (3) develop the implementation base (e.g., systems, plans, personnel) for supporting the development of CWD and providing educational services in elementary and middle schools nationwide, and (4) encourage teachers in kindergarten and elementary and middle schools to participate in in-service teacher training (online or in-person) as part of the development support and educational services for CWD.

The second phase of START differs from the first and other initiatives in international education cooperation by emphasizing preschool education for CWD. In contrast to the programs of other donor countries and international cooperation agencies, which provided limited support for early childhood education for CWD to Mongolia, JICA specifically targets the kindergarten level in the second phase. This focus is significant, because attending kindergarten increases the chances of a successful transition to subsequent educational stages for CWD in Mongolia (Kameyama, 2021). As the second phase of START is ongoing, this study primarily examines the detailed activities of the first phase by relying on its final report and handbooks as key references.

Main activities of the first phase of START

The first output of the initial phase of START was to improve the capabilities of Mongolian doctors and social workers in the early diagnosis and development support for CWD. Early detection of disabilities in children is crucial for maximizing their potential and growth, which enables them to thrive (JICA & KRC, 2019, p. 12). To accomplish this objective, several measures were implemented, including the utilization of Mother and Children’s Health Notebooks, the introduction of health assessments for 18-month-old children, and the establishment of case review meetings and the Parent–Child Classroom program (JICA & KRC, 2019, pp. 16–18).

A project of the National Center for Child Health and Development in Japan previously introduced the Mother and Children’s Health Notebooks to Mongolia between 2007 and 2009. However, utilization was limited to recording infant vaccinations. The START implementation team encouraged family doctors in pilot areas to utilize the notebooks for detecting early signs of disabilities in children, which increased the guardians’ awareness of the health status of their children (JICA & KRC, 2019, p. 17).

Medical officials from the pilot areas received training on the effective use of the notebooks and provided training and guidance tours to colleagues at home health centers (JICA & KRC, 2019, p. 18). Additionally, the Handbook on the Utilization of Mother and Children’s Health Notebooks was developed to assist the medical officials. This handbook also offered easily accessible information on development indicators per age, assessment methods, and tips for guardians to promote children’s development.

An 18-month infant assessment system, which was modeled after Japan’s experience in infant health assessment and development support, was also implemented (JICA & KRC, 2019, pp. 16–18). The START project team and the Bayangol District Health Center collaboratively developed a questionnaire for early and effective infant assessment. To improve the quality of the assessments, Mongolian medical professionals underwent supervision training in 18-month infant assessment and visited home health centers to provide instructions on asking consistent questions to children and guardians and on detecting potential developmental delays early on. Furthermore, a handbook for the 18-month infant health assessment was produced and distributed to home health centers, which aided guardians in understanding the development indicators and assessment methods. These efforts resulted in a significant increase in the average medical assessment rate of 18-month-old infants in the pilot areas. For instance, assessment cases increased from 46 in 2015 to 588 by 2018 and from 265 to 475 in Bayangol District and Khuvsgul Province, respectively, during the same period.

In addition, the START implementation team proposed two additional initiatives in the pilot areas for providing comprehensive support to families raising CWD: the case review meeting system and the Parent–Child Classroom program (JICA & KRC, 2019, pp. 22–25). The case review meeting involved doctors, social workers, preschool teachers, and local officials in identifying children with special needs in the pilot areas and creating personalized development support plans. Simultaneously, the Parent–Child Classroom program intended to assist guardians of children identified with disabilities through the 18-month infant checkup by supporting access to appropriate preschools and facilitating transition to primary schools. As a result, Mongolian stakeholders regularly conducted case review meetings, independently formulated development support plans, and initiated the expansion of the Parent–Child Classroom program from one to five locations (JICA & KRC, 2019, p. 65).

The second output of the first phase of START was to enhance the capabilities of pilot schools in delivering high-quality education for CWD (JICA & KRC, 2019, p. 28). To achieve this objective, the activities encompassed developing a standardized form for IEPs, training teachers in regular schools on CWD, and establishing an in-school committee for inclusive education.

Previously, teachers in Mongolian special needs schools used diverse IEP formats that primarily emphasized academic progress (JICA & KRC, 2019, p. 30).Footnote 7 This lack of consistency and narrow focus hindered the comprehensive understanding of the circumstances of students, including the nature and severity of disabilities, daily life challenges, and personal goals (JICA & KRC, 2019, p. 32). Thus, teachers from the four pilot special needs schools collaborated with Japanese experts to develop a standardized IEP for CWD (JICA & KRC, 2019, pp. 30–33). Referring to the Japanese version and comparing it with their plans implemented in each school, they tailored the IEPs to the educational context of Mongolia through multiple drafts and classroom utilization from November 2016 to March 2017.

This standardization led to increased usage of the IEPs; thus, the number of students with IEPs in the four pilot special needs schools increased from 76 in 2016 to 321 in 2018 and from 2 to 58 in the 10 pilot regular schools (JICA & KRC, 2019, p. 86). Moreover, this standardization bolstered the capacity of teachers in the pilot special needs schools by promoting a comprehensive understanding of the challenges faced by CWD (KRC, 2019, pp. 22–23). Consequently, effective collaboration among teachers was facilitated, which encouraged CWD to participate in all classroom activities. Furthermore, the use of IEPs improved communication with the guardians of CWD, which enabled teachers to gain insights directly from parents about the children and their family dynamics, which, thus, strengthened the teacher–guardian relationship.

Teachers in special needs school in Ulaanbaatar also worked with Japanese experts to improve the capacity of regular school teachers with limited experience in instructing CWD. These teachers provided guidance on using and implementing IEPs in inclusive classrooms and facilitated opportunities for regular school teachers to visit special needs schools and learn how to interact with CWD. As a result, by the end of START, 43.1% of regular school teachers felt better prepared to accept and educate CWD in their classrooms compared with 15.8% before the project (KRC, 2019, p. 28). A few regular schools even assigned homeroom teachers to inform guardians about CWD during PTA meetings.

In addition to empowering individual teachers, START prioritized the establishment of a supportive school system that embraces CWD as a whole (JICA & KRC, 2019, p. 38). Mongolian stakeholders, including public officials, researchers, and teachers from special needs schools, visited Japan in 2018 to observe various inclusive education practices. Inspired by their experiences in Japan, they initiated the formation of in-school committees who were responsible for identifying children with special needs and developing comprehensive guidance plans for the entire school. This approach ensured that CWD in regular schools received support not only from homeroom teachers but also from the entire school community.

The third output of the first phase of START was the implementation of mini projects by Mongolian stakeholders to explore various methods for improving inclusive education (JICA & KRC, 2019, pp. 48–52). During academic years 2016–2017 and 2017–2018, schools, lifelong learning centers, and non-governmental organizations across the country submitted 136 proposals. The START implementation team selected only six of these proposals by prioritizing activities that could be sustained beyond the duration of the mini project and expanded nationwide.

The six selected mini projects aimed to achieve the following objectives: (1) facilitate the inclusion of children with intellectual impairments in regular classrooms, (2) restructure a lifelong learning center to provide non-formal education for CWD who are unable to attend regular schools for various reasons, (3) conduct workshops on inclusive education for day-care service providers that cater to children with and without disabilities, (4) develop learning materials, including sign language word, sentence, and gesture word cards specifically designed for children with hearing impairments, (5) deliver inclusive education to CWD who are not enrolled in preschools, and (6) establish a children’s development center within a regular school setting in which CWD can receive after-school support.

Through these mini projects, CWD who were previously excluded from the school system not only attended regular schools but also experienced a sense of empowerment in learning. As a result, their chance of progressing to vocational and higher education increased. Teachers, parents, and day-care service providers gained a comprehensive understanding of CWD and inclusive education. Furthermore, the learning materials developed through these mini projects were shared free of charge with institutions involved in promoting inclusive education.

The fourth output of the first phase of START was to disseminate the accomplishments and outcomes to relevant stakeholders and integrate them into national systems and policies. This goal was accomplished through experience-sharing seminars, enhancement of the current teacher training program, and improvement in the teacher training curriculum (JICA & KRC, 2019, pp. 53–56). For example, the current teacher training program was expanded to include lessons on inclusive education with groups classified according to their level of experience (1, 5, and 10 years). The teacher training curriculum was also strengthened by establishing a 3.5-year Special Needs Education Teacher Training Course in 2016, and, finally, a department for special needs education at the Mongolian National University of Education in December 2017 (JICA & KRC, 2019, p. 57). Seven Mongolian project officials from START served as instructors for the new program, which contributed to the improvement in the curriculum.

Furthermore, cooperation between Japanese experts and Mongolian stakeholders led to the ratification of the accomplishments of the START program (JICA & KRC, 2019, p. 73). Notably, Ordinances A/155 (March 2018) and A/292 (May 2019) of the Ministry of Education and Science approved the IEP format and manual and the establishment of in-school committees for CWD, respectively. Additionally, in November 2018, three ministries in education, health, and social protection, respectively, endorsed the Guideline of Comprehensive Development Support for CWD. These legal frameworks laid the foundation for inclusive education nationwide.

In summary, START successfully achieved its goal of establishing a comprehensive model for early diagnosis, development support, and education for CWD, thereby improving their access to the education system. The findings indicate the increased utilization of IEPs in regular and special needs schools, improved attitudes toward inclusive education among teachers and parents, and enhanced student motivation (JICA & KRC, 2019, pp. 86–87; Tajima et al., 2023).

This success is further evidenced by the increase in CWD enrollment from 1265 in 2016 to 1445 in 2018 across the 14 pilot schools of START (JICA & KRC, 2019, pp. 84–85). By contrast, non-pilot regular schools within the pilot areas experienced a decrease in the number of CWD from 583 to 477, which may be due to transfers to special needs schools or dropout cases. These achievements were made possible within a short timeframe due to the collaboration between Japanese experts and Mongolian stakeholders. In conclusion, START has proven highly effective in achieving its goals, improving educational opportunities for CWD, and creating a positive impact on the education system.

Reflection of Japanese inclusive education in START

The dual aspects of Japanese inclusive education are evident in the START project. It incorporates programs such as the distribution of Mother and Children’s Health Notebooks and regular 18-month assessments. This approach views disability as a medical characteristic of the individual and prioritizes an individualized approach. Meanwhile, teaching methods are designed to promote the inclusion of CWD in the classroom and school life alongside peers. When Mongolian teachers and Japanese experts introduced inclusive education practices, they focused on not only meeting the specific needs of CWD but also promoting interaction and mutual learning between these students and their classmates.

The START project recognized the need to “identify disabilities early and provide support” (START, 2019c, p. 1). As a Mongolian official stated, “In Mongolia, parents’ awareness and understanding of detecting infants’ developmental delays or disabilities and providing support is low, which limits children’s growth opportunities and results in secondary disabilities” (START, 2019c, p. 2). Therefore, providing “developmental support from an early stage to prevent secondary disabilities and maximize children’s developmental potential” was deemed crucial (START, 2019c, p. 1).

Thus, the START implementation team published a handbook introducing an individualistic approach to CWD (START, 2019a). The Handbook on Guidance for Children with Severe Disabilities categorized the developmental tasks that CWD should learn into four areas, namely, personal independence, exercise/operation, language/cognition/number, and communication/sociality. The handbook provided a range of activities for each area. Notably, all activities in the handbook focused on one-on-one interactions between CWD and teachers.

For instance, for exercise/operation, activities included teachers and children exchanging balls or cutting and pasting pictures. The activities, which aimed to develop communication/sociality, involved selecting items from pictures or tools presented by teachers or playing tower-building games with teachers. Essentially, the activities were based on individual guidance for CWD, which are separate from their peers: “For children and students with intellectual disabilities, it is challenging to learn at their grade level due to slow or uneven development,” and, thus, “it is important to create classes that are suitable for each individual’s situation based on the development area and order” (START, 2019a, p. 1).

Meanwhile, the START project encouraged Mongolian teachers to create guidance contents and methods that comprehensively tackle the needs of each student (Uehara et al., 2018). It released a handbook entitled Support Handbook for Children with Learning Delay and Behavior Problems. This handbook includes a checklist of nine areas, namely, listening, speaking, reading, writing, calculation, understanding time/space/causality, movement, interpersonal relationships, and behavior, which encompasses attention deficit and impulsiveness (START, 2019b, p. 1). The purpose of the checklist is to “identify the special needs of CWD in their daily school life and classes.” Notably, however, “it is not intended to diagnose disabilities.” Thus, the IEPs included in the handbook provide information about the grade, characteristics, and learning challenges of the child as well as the root cause of these difficulties. The IEPs further emphasized the importance of providing appropriate consideration and specific support, promoting activity performance and improvement, and incorporating observations from homeroom teachers.

For instance, the difficulties experienced by a second-grade student in calculation were initially considered a result of missed classes and poor concentration in arithmetic lessons (START, 2019b, pp. 38–41). However, after consulting with the parents, the underlying issue was identified as the frequent work-related travel of the father and the preoccupation of the mother with caring for an infant, which made maintaining the attendance of the child challenging. To address this issue, the child was seated at the front row of the classroom or next to a high-performing student to enhance their focus and was encouraged to attend school with a nearby friend. This approach proved successful as the homeroom teacher reported improvements in the child’s arithmetic skills and a heightened motivation to learn, including doing homework at home. This process exemplifies the emphasis placed by START on addressing the special needs of each child in partnership with classmates, parents, and teachers.

The Support Handbook for Children with Learning Delay and Behavior Problems also highlights the importance of group learning in Japanese inclusive education. For example, the handbook presents the case of a sixth-grade student with poor eyesight and limited learning and communication skills due to brain damage (START, 2019b, pp. 44–46). The teacher at the START pilot school adapted the class content in such a manner that the student could understand and encouraged cooperation with his classmates. This approach “benefitted not only the student but the entire class.” The teacher aimed to “foster the student’s ability to communicate and interact with others and improve his social skills outside of the classroom.”

This goal was achieved through various activities, such as “working at the blackboard with close friends, playing together during breaks, reviewing lessons with friends, listening to each other’s impressions, and praising one another,” thereby “ensuring that all class members understand one another.” Games and competitions involving all students were also organized. Subsequently, the students enjoyed spending time with their friends, participated in classroom activities, and developed effective communication skills with classmates and teachers. These experiences ensured mutual understanding among all class members.

Moreover, the Parent–Child Classroom program is based on a social model that views disability as a result of the social environment instead of an individual characteristic. This program provided “a place to play in groups” for “children with disabilities or developmental delays,” who underwent regular 18-month assessments. It supported parents in raising CWD and prepared them for kindergarten (START, 2019c, p. 4). Approximately 10 children participated per session and engaged in the same activities once a month for six sessions. The repetition of activities aimed to observe the gradual progress of the children instead of solely focusing on correcting disabilities or developmental delays. The program intended to “promote the importance of group life in preschool education for all children, regardless of disability” and “help them enter kindergarten and lead a stable life based on their experience in the Parent–Child Classroom” (START, 2019c, p. 6). Ultimately, the focus of the Parent–Child Classroom lies in “creating a supportive environment for the healthy growth of children, focusing on their strengths and the strengths of their families, rather than treating functional disabilities” (START, 2019c, p. 5).

The participants of the Parent–Child Classroom, including teachers and guardians, positively responded to the program. A kindergarten principal highlighted its significance by stating that, “All the children who participated in our program demonstrated many desirable changes in language, behavior, health, and mental development through their interactions with other children, guardians, and teachers, and we teachers gained courage and energy” (START, 2019c, p. 3). The guardians who participated in the program also reported, “My child started attending special needs kindergarten because of the Parent–Child Classroom,” or “I noticed that my child has become more accustomed to the new environment and her social skills have improved” (START, 2019c, p. 3). Although these cases were limited in the START pilot area, it served as a compelling example of the educational ideology of Japan, which underlines “the importance of group life in preschool education, regardless of the presence or absence of disabilities” (START, 2019c, p. 6).

In summary, the START project encompasses two key aspects of Japanese inclusive education, which should be viewed as complementary instead of conflicting. Understanding the specific needs of CWD is crucial for creating educational environments and peer groups that enable interaction with students with and without disabilities. By conducting comprehensive assessments of the needs of child, a supportive and inclusive environment can be created. Given that the majority of students with disabilities in Mongolia currently attend regular schools, implementing the symbiotic principles of Japanese inclusive education and fostering the growth and inclusion of these students within peer groups are especially important initiatives.

Conclusion

This study analyzed the introduction of inclusive education practices from Japan to Mongolia through the START project. One of the benefits of Japanese-style inclusive education is the early detection of disabilities and development of plans for understanding each child with disabilities to ensure that their unique needs are met. Even when CWD receive individualized education, however, Japanese experts in the START project advised including them in classes with non-disabled peers. Instead of emphasizing the academic progress of CWD, they prioritized the creation of an inclusive environment in which CWD could grow as members of regular classes. By shedding light on the application of dualistic features of Japanese inclusive education in the Mongolian education system, this study highlights the importance of considering the educational practices of donor and recipient countries in international education cooperation.

This study also emphasizes the collaborative nature of successful international education cooperation. The effectiveness of the START project can be attributed to the joint efforts of Japan and Mongolia. Instead of imposing Japanese-style inclusive education, the Japanese experts engaged in negotiations with Mongolian stakeholders to determine the contents and methods of the project. They also encouraged Mongolian teachers and medical professionals to share their acquired skills and tools with colleagues in schools and home health centers.

Meanwhile, the Mongolian stakeholders played pivotal roles in various aspects of the project. They were involved in developing the 18-month health assessment system, the IEP format, mini projects, and inclusive education curricula at higher education institutions in cooperation with the START implementation team. Additionally, they initiated the introduction of in-school committees and expanded the Parent–Child Classroom programs.

This shared ownership of the project between Japan and Mongolia facilitated the smooth integration of Japanese inclusive education practices into Mongolia. Therefore, this study confirms that a balanced partnership is crucial for the effective implementation of international education cooperation (Colclough & De, 2010; Higgins & Rwanyange, 2005; Lee, 2013).

Nevertheless, this study is limited in its ability to fully evaluate the role of Mongolian officials and teachers in the design and implementation of the START project due to the lack of fieldwork in Mongolia and language restrictions, which prevented a comprehensive review of the documents of the Mongolian government and the perspectives of the teachers. Further research should prioritize the incorporation of the perspectives of Mongolian stakeholders to provide a broad understanding of the START project. Moreover, conducting fieldwork in special needs and regular schools in Mongolia would be particularly beneficial for future studies in examining the relationships between CWD and teachers and between parents and teachers.

The current situation in Mongolia is conducive to the achievement of the objectives of inclusive education. The Mongolian government lacks plans to increase the number of special needs schools. Instead, it seeks to establish a nationwide supportive system for CWD (JICA & KRC, 2019, p. 37). With limited options for special needs education, CWD and their guardians are enrolling in mainstream schools. Furthermore, the younger generation of Mongolian teachers, who have been exposed to the ideologies and methods of inclusive education since the 2000s, may not support a separatist approach. Therefore, government officials, teachers, and guardians should work collaboratively to accommodate CWD and non-CWD students in the same classroom and cater to their individual needs regardless of their disabilities.

The realization of inclusive education in Mongolia faces several challenges that require attention, including bridging the gap between nationwide policies and practices in the educational setting and addressing prejudices held by a number of Mongolian parents and teachers toward inclusive education. Nonetheless, if a balanced combination between separatist and social approaches to educating CWD is effectively integrated into mainstream schools, then Mongolia holds the potential to successfully achieve the ideals of inclusive education.