Introduction

Examinations are widely recognized and commonly employed means of talent selection in most countries. As Seymour (Sarason 1959) wrote, “we live in a test-conscious, test-giving culture in which the lives of people are in part determined by their test performance” (1959, p. 26). Individual test performance holds significant importance in determining one’s ability to succeed in society (Segool et al., 2013).

China, as a populous nation, also stands out as a major player in the realm of examinations, contributing to heightened competition in test scores. Elementary and junior high school education is compulsory in China, meaning all children and adolescents have the right to free education (National People’s Congress of the People’s Republic of China, 2021). However, high school education is not compulsory. To enter high school, students must pass a competitive examination, and not all students have the opportunity to attend regular high schools (Xue & Fang, 2021). Those with subpar academic performance may be redirected to vocational education, a circumstance that profoundly impacts their future job opportunities (Liu, 2004). Consequently, for the majority of Chinese students, the examinations for high school is anxiety provoking due to its high stakes.

A large number of students experience heightened anxiety levels when facing exams, worrying about potential poor performance and the implications of failure (Hill et al., 1984; Zeidner, 1998). Huang and Zhou (2019) conducted a statistical analysis of research published between 2000 and 2015, revealing that 22.32% of the students have experienced high test anxiety among a total of 32,021 individuals across 53 studies. Other research reports from China indicate prevalence of severe test anxiety varies from 30 to 40% (Shen et al., 2018; Zou et al., 2017). According to a recent cohort study in Shenzhen with over 7,000 adolescents, 46.7% was affected by test anxiety (Chen et al., 2023).

Students with high test anxiety were found to have a range of maladaptive outcomes, such as developing anxiety disorders (e.g., social phobia) and mental health problems (e.g., depression) (King et al., 1995; LeBeau et al., 2010). Poor academic performance (Eum & Rice, 2011; Segool et al., 2013) and low learning engagement (Balogun et al., 2017) were also found in this population. Thus, it is crucial to prevent the development of test anxiety among students. Psychological preventive intervention programs may play a key role in the prevention of test anxiety.

Behavioral intervention and cognitive behavioral intervention remain the predominant methods for addressing test anxiety in contemporary times (Soares & Woods, 2020; von der Embse et al., 2013; Zeng et al., 2023). However, we posit that many of these interventions may not be conducive to universal and preventive measures due to the requirement of highly trained professional therapists. Given, the vast population and limited number of counselors/therapists in China (Jiang, 2016), there is an urgent need to develop culturally sensitive preventive intervention programs in Chinese schools. In this context, brief meditation interventions that emerged in recent years are more suitable for implementation in junior high schools.

Meditation as a Technique to Reduce Test Anxiety

Meditation refers to a variety of practices including concentrative meditation (Sedlmeier et al., 2012), guided meditation (Sedlmeier et al., 2012), and mindfulness meditation, which involves allowing oneself to be in a state of tranquility, while “observing one’s experiences, not creating or modifying them” (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Meditation exercises range from techniques designed to promote relaxation, to practices for spiritual well-being (Lutz et al., 2008). Meditation is a method that originated from Eastern religions (Wilson, 2014), and meditation practices are becoming more widespread in Western societies because of their positive impact on the brain and mind (Tang et al., 2015). As a psychotherapeutic intervention, research on meditation training has covered medical treatment (Praissman, 2008), management practice (Marques & Dhiman, 2009), and spiritual exploration (Garland et al., 2007). At the same time, in the field of psychology and neuroscience, there is also a large amount of evidence that meditation training is beneficial for stress reduction (Tang et al., 2015), mental health (Hofmann et al., 2010), psychotherapy (Hayes et al., 2004), and the treatment of mental illnesses (Zarrabian, 2010). Meditation is also associated with mindfulness, which is a contemporary secular adaptation of traditional meditation practices with the goal of improving cognitive focus (Hyland, 2015).

In recent years, meditation training has also gradually been extended to schools. A meta-analysis of 61 studies found an upward trend in the use of mindfulness-based interventions (MBI) in schools to reduce student stress and anxiety and improve socio-emotional competencies, student behavior and academic achievement (Maynard et al., 2017). There is now a growing body of evidence indicating that meditation training has a positive effect on test-anxious students.

Several studies have documented the positive effects of mindfulness interventions, such as mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR), on test anxiety (Shahidi et al., 2017). For instance, Shahidi et al. (2017) utilized John Kabat-Zinn’s (2013) MBSR manual in an experiment with female high school students for emotion regulation and test anxiety, implementing interventions in eight weekly 90‑min sessions. The results show that the MBSR program has had continuous significant effects on test anxiety. Dundas et al. (2016) conducted MBSR interventions for 70 college students experiencing test anxiety, finding that MBSR effectively reduced students’ test anxiety levels, and the effects persisted even after the intervention concluded. Seidi and Ahmad (2018) randomly assigned 50 high school students to an experimental group (MBSR) and a control group, and similarly confirmed that MBSR could reduce test anxiety for up to three months at least. Although, interventions like MBSR are effective methods to reduce student test anxiety, students may not have the time required by MBSR, given their busy academic schedules in school. Adding activities that require more time commitment from students may violate China’s “double reduction” policy enacted in 2021, which calls for alleviating the academic burden on primary and secondary school students (Central Committee of the Communist Party of China & General Office of the State Council, 2021). Therefore, how to ensure that an anxiety intervention is effective, brief, and feasible to be implemented in regular classrooms is a key challenge that this study aims to address.

There are studies supporting brief interventions related to test anxiety. Colangelo and Audet (2020) recruited 50 college students, assigning them to intervention and control groups, where each group engaged in a 20-min session of seated meditation and origami tasks, respectively. The results revealed that, despite no pre-test score differences, the post-test scores for state test anxiety in the intervention group were significantly lower than those in the control group. Another study with 36 college students prone to arithmetic test anxiety also found brief mindfulness intervention helpful (Brunyé et al., 2013). In the study, the participants were assigned to three groups: Mindfulness breath observation, non-focused breathing (unfocused on any specific target, with free mental wandering), and worry practice (deep contemplation of a series of anxiety-inducing questions). The findings indicated that the mindfulness breath observation group reported a more serene mood before the test (Brunyé et al., 2013). Kaplan-Rakowski et al. (2021) compared the intervention effectiveness of a single 15-min meditation session delivered through virtual reality and meditation delivered through video and found that meditation techniques provided through both mediums helped reduce students’ anxiety before exams. However, it’s important to note that these three studies primarily explored the immediate effects of brief meditation on state test anxiety. Considering the potential long-term impact of test anxiety on daily life, such as reduced study engagement (Balogun et al., 2017), we argue for the necessity of more prolonged and stable intervention plans for test anxiety. In addition, the interventions in these studies were with college students, and not infused in the regular school routine. Thus, the applicability of these interventions for the adolescents in the Chinese schools is unknown. The mechanism of how the interventions work is also unknown.

In summary, meditation has gradually developed into one of the important intervention methods to promote students’ mental health and reduce test anxiety. Improving the content of meditation interventions and optimizing doses needs to be further explored to better integrate it into the daily activities in schools. Further exploration is also needed to advance our understanding of how brief meditation may effect students’ test anxiety.

Theoretical Underpinning

Not only does the effect of meditation intervention require further study, the theory of meditation intervention to prevent Chinese junior high school students’ test anxiety also needs further development in the following two aspects:

Cultural and Contextual Considerations

Researchers and interventionists should consider cultural and contextual relevance of an intervention and what cultural adaptations are needed. Cultural adaptations refer to the systematic modifications of evidence-based treatments or intervention protocols by “considering language, culture, and context in a way that is compatible with the client’s cultural patterns, meanings and values” (Bernal et al., 2009; p.361). A meta-analysis showed that mental health interventions adapted for specific ethnoracial groups were more effective than generic interventions offered to ethnoracially diverse samples (Griner & Smith, 2006).

Even though meditation is a practice that originated from Eastern religious traditions (Wilson, 2014), the meditation intervention programs developed in Western societies need to be reviewed for cultural appropriateness. For example, the Mindfulness-Based Flourishing Program (MBFP) was developed in the UK by researchers from Western backgrounds. In the original study of the MBFP, participants came from 20 countries, with the majority from Western cultures including the United Kingdom (29.8%), Canada (27.8%), United States (12.6%) and Australia (10.6%). Therefore it is important to test the efficacy of the program cross-culturally, to examine whether similar effects would be found, since the experience of mindfulness differs across cultures (Ivtzan et al., 2018).

In addition to culture, contextual factors are also important to consider when adapting an intervention. School is a crucial environment for adolescent development and plays an important role in the acquisition of social emotional skills (Green & Norrish, 2013). The incorporation of BMI into school curriculum can facilitate a well-rounded development of adolescents in both academic and psychological aspects. In recent years, schools have been changing from academic institutions that focus on imparting knowledge and skills to institutions that meet the various needs of adolescents (Shoshani & Steinmetz, 2013). Chinese middle schools have a well-defined concept of classes. Students in the same grade are randomly assigned to different classes upon enrollment, and these class cohorts continue to study and live together until graduation. Each class is led by a homeroom teacher who is responsible for both teaching and overall development of the students in the class. The homeroom teacher holds a special authority within the class. Thus, in adapting meditation intervention to this special cultural context and implementing it in a sustainable way, the leadership at the class level must be considered. With such considerations, the current intervention study aimed to design a culturally sensitive brief meditation intervention (BMI) program for reducing test anxiety among Chinese junior high school students.

The Mechanism of Test Anxiety

Most studies only examine the effects of the intervention but do not explore what factors play a role in the intervention (Schotanus-Dijkstra et al., 2017). The same applies to meditation interventions. Based on available literature, the roles of mindfulness and self-efficacy in the meditation interventions for text anxiety warrant exploring.

Mindfulness. Numerous studies have found that after meditation intervention, the level of mindfulness (Burke, 2010) and self-efficacy (Özcan & Isildar, 2021; Vidic & Cherup, 2019) of individuals significantly improve. Mindfulness is a conscious and nonjudgmental focus on various experiences or sensations occurring in the present moment (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Over the past few years, mindfulness has been operationalized as a stable psychological trait and can be measured using various trait scales. A possible explanation of why mindfulness may reduce test anxiety may be as follows: When individuals experience physiological signs of test anxiety, habitual automatic judgments often lead to interpreting these experiences as tension (Xu et al., 2023). The de-automation brought about by mindfulness can disrupt negative automatic evaluations, allowing for new perceptions to emerge (Chambers et al., 2009). Within the Chinese context, several studies indicate that higher levels of mindfulness are associated with lower levels of test anxiety (Tian, 2019), and mindfulness levels significantly predict individual test anxiety levels (Wang & Zhao, 2015; Xu, 2018).

Self-efficacy. As an individual susceptibility factor, self-efficacy contributes to individuals’ experience of a sense of test threat before exams, which in turn exacerbates test anxiety (Xu et al., 2023). Self-efficacy refers to the belief in one’s own capacity and has thereby been proven to have a significant influence on human accomplishment (Bandura, 1997). According to the cognitive behavioral model of test anxiety in a high stakes context proposed by Segool et al. (2013), self-efficacy is ranked as the strongest predictor of test anxiety. The model suggests that interventions targeting test anxiety related to high stakes tests can be enhanced by strengthening an individual’s sense of self-efficacy. Chan et al. (2021) revealed that mindfulness techniques may help individuals become more conscious of their own self-efficacy by increasing awareness of their perspective in every circumstance, whether it includes objects, people, locations, or ideas. Thus, mindfulness impacts self-efficacy, while increased self-efficacy alleviates the levels of anxiety, stress, and depression in turn (Sharma & Kumra, 2022).

Therefore, it can be inferred that brief meditation intervention (BMI) can reduce test anxiety by enhancing individuals’ mindfulness and self-efficacy, and mindfulness and self-efficacy may play a chain of mediating roles in the relationship between BMI and test anxiety. This exploration aims to deepen our understanding of the mechanisms involved in meditation interventions.

The Current Study

Our study categorizes intervention methods into two types based on their duration and effectiveness. The first type comprises long and intensive interventions such as the cognitive behavioral therapy and mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR), which involve 8–12 sessions, 45–90 min per session. The substantial time required by this type of extensive interventions may disrupt students’ regular school schedules. As indicated by Blanco et al. (2008), 25% of USA students experiencing test anxiety did not have time for psychological interventions. The second type involves brief interventions, such as single-session meditation or relaxation techniques, lasting 5–20 min. While, these methods show effectiveness in reducing state test anxiety, limited research has explored their long-term impact. Hence, our plan is to devise an intervention program that integrates the advantages of both types by minimizing time and ensuring sustained effects post-intervention.

As noted by DeLuca et al. (2018), cultural adaptations of mindfulness- and meditation-based interventions (MMBI) are scarce, necessitating investigations into culturally adapted MMBI to optimize treatment effects. While, the meditation intervention aims to reduce anxiety, the construct and expression of the same effect vary across cultures. Therefore, we must carefully consider how to adapt the meditation intervention to Chinese cultural context and how to implement it. The current study aims to design a culturally sensitive brief meditation intervention (BMI) program for reducing test anxiety among Chinese junior high school students. To do so, we applied the Ecological Validity Framework for Culturally Adapted Interventions (Bernal et al., 1995) in formulating intervention goals, training materials, and methods. In particular, we used Bernal et al. (1995) eight cultural dimensions to adapt our intervention materials to the Chinese students’ cultural perspectives, meanings, and values. The dimensions include (1) Language; (2) Persons; (3) Metaphor; (4) Content; (5) Concepts; (6) Goals; (7) Methods; and (8) Context.

Finally, as an emerging intervention, meditation training is still in its early exploratory stage for mitigating test anxiety among secondary school students compared to other intervention methods. Most studies only examine the effects of the interventions, but do not explore what factors contribute to those effects (Schotanus-Dijkstra et al., 2017). Designing a more effective preventive intervention requires insight on how an intervention works (Stice et al., 2007; Zhao et al., 2021). At this time, the mechanism of the BMI for reducing anxiety still remains unclear. Therefore, it is essential (a) to supplement research on the intervention effects of meditation training for test anxiety among secondary school students, and (b) to further examine the mechanisms underlying its effectiveness. In addition, improving methodological shortcomings is essential for a robust test of relevant theories and intervention methods.

To expand on the research reviewed above, the current study attempted to design a culturally sensitive BMI program to reduce test anxiety among Chinese junior high school students. Based on the theories discussed above, the intervention in this study adapted components of previous meditation training (Cai, 2017; Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Li et al., 2019; Ma, 2020) and developed the BMI for eight weeks, 6–7 min per day for reducing test anxiety in Chinese junior high school students. The BMI includes guided meditation with relaxation music, mindful breathing and body scanning, and positive suggestions.

The current study examined the effects of BMI on the test anxiety of Chinese junior high school students and explored the hypothesized chain mediating roles of mindfulness and self-efficacy between the BMI and test anxiety. Chain mediating effect refers to the sequential mediating effects of two or more variables. The model we tested is shown in Fig. 1. We hypothesized that (1) the BMI would reduce test anxiety and increase mindfulness and self-efficacy and the lasting effects would be significant; and (2) mindfulness and self-efficacy act as chain mediators between BMI and test anxiety reduction.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Chain mediation model

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Methods

Cultural Adaptation to the BMI Program

We took the following steps to adapt our intervention materials and procedures to the Chinese junior high school students’ cultural background in the eight domains of the Ecological Validity Framework (Bernal et al., 1995). In terms of matching the language and person, we reviewed and felt ensured that our intervention leaders and students share the language and the person characteristics that students can relate to. Secondly, to adapt the metaphors and content for the students, we localized the language of the traditional meditation instruction into a language suitable for Chinese junior high school students. For example, in the BMI, we used a metaphor from the Chinese culture, which likened human consciousness to the sky, and disturbing thoughts to clouds in the sky. Students were instructed to learn to accept the existence of clouds (disturbing thoughts) and understand that disturbing thoughts and emotions are just like clouds come and go.

In terms of concepts, goals, and methods, we created a unique feedback mechanism and interactive model to address students’ potential issues and specify appropriate goals and methods. The team incorporated the BMI feedback questions in the progress review of psychological classes for the students. Students were encouraged to share various experiences in the BMI with their teachers in psychology class for the improvement of the intervention plan.

Finally, we considered cultural factors and potential relevant backgrounds to align with the context dimension. Considering, the urgent problem of test anxiety and the strict class management in Chinese middle schools, we seamlessly incorporated BMI into the school’s daily routine, to ensure no disruption to other courses or activities. As each Chinese middle school class has one homeroom teacher in charge, we invited these teachers to collaborate with us. Teachers were responsible for leading the class through the BMI, while the research team was responsible for providing support, feedback, and resources to aid with program implementation. These contextually adapted procedures aligned seamlessly with the typical class schedule in Chinese middle schools, and consequently minimized the dropout rates in the intervention study.

Participants

A total of 202 participants (six existing classes) were recruited from the eighth grade of an urban junior high school in Beijing, China. This school is located in the fifth Ring Road of Beijing, and its students reside nearby. The students’ families are mostly working-class, with average annual income in the country. Six classes were assigned to either an experimental group (3 classes, N = 103) or an active control group (3 classes, N = 99). The experimental group underwent the brief meditation intervention (BMI), while the active control group concurrently listened to relaxation music. The music played during the control group’s sessions was the same as the accompanying music used in the BMI. During the intervention process, a total of six students withdrew from the study, and twelve students were absent for more than half of the time (20 days), as shown in Fig. 2. After removing the invalid data, 184 participants (Mage = 14.14, SD = 0.34; 97 males; 95 experimental group) were included in the final analysis. The result of the χ2-test for gender showed no significant difference between male and female groups in number [χ2(1) = 0.10, p > 0.05].

Fig. 2
figure 2

Flow of participants though each stage of the intervention procedure

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Measures

Chinese Version of Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (CMAAS)

The CMAAS is based on the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown & Ryan, 2003), a relatively stable measure and one of the most popular instruments for dispositional mindfulness. The scale has a total of 15 questions (Sample item: ‘I rush through activities without being really attentive to them.’). Each item is rated on a 6-point Likert-type scale (1 = almost never to 6 = almost always), with a higher score indicating a high level of dispositional mindfulness. The internal consistency reliability (Cronbach’s α) of the CMAAS for Chinese adolescents is 0.89–0.93 (Black et al., 2012). In the pre-test of this study, the Cronbach’s α is 0.80.

General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES)

The GSES (Zhang & Schwarzer, 1995) has ten items on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 to 4 (“totally wrong” to “absolutely right”). It is used to assess one’s self-efficacy. The internal consistency reliability (Cronbach’s α) of the GSES Chinese version for Chinese adolescents is 0.85 (Hu et al., 2014). In the pre-test of this study, the Cronbach’s α is 0.86.

Test Anxiety Scale (TAS)

The test anxiety scale (Sarason, 1978) assesses an individual’s attitude towards the special situation of the test, and the individual’s physical and mental changes before and after the test. It is one of the most widely used tools for researching and diagnosing test anxiety. The scale consists of a total of 37 questions, with respondents required to answer each question with a choice of yes or no. The third, 15th, 26th, 27th, 29th, and 33rd questions are scored in reverse. The higher the score, the higher the test anxiety level. The internal consistency reliability (Cronbach’s α) of the TAS for Chinese adolescents is 0.87 (Song & Zhang, 2008). In the pre-test of this study, the Cronbach’s α is 0.84.

Materials

We have developed a brief meditation intervention (BMI) spanning eight weeks, with sessions lasting 6–7 min each day, aimed at alleviating test anxiety among Chinese junior high school students. Drawing from insights gained from prior meditation training studies (Cai, 2017; Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Li et al., 2019; Ma, 2020), and aligning with our research goal of mitigating test anxiety, we have identified three pivotal components for the intervention:

  1. (1)

    Relaxation music In this study, slow tempo music was played in the background throughout the entire training, because soothing background music can help individuals relax (Bancroft, 1995; Cai, 2017). Relaxation is the indirect settling of emotions through the conscious control of muscle activities. The relaxation exercises result in and maintain a calm and happy emotional state, thereby reduce the arousal level of the body, enhance the ability to adapt, and improve cognitive functioning (Liang et al., 2015). It is an effective method to reduce anxiety and depression (Liang et al., 2015).

  2. (2)

    Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction techniques This part consists of the techniques of mindful breathing and body scanning techniques adapted from Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (Kabat-Zinn, 2003) for Chinese junior high school students. A 3–4 min brief mindfulness decompression technique guideline was formed to adapt to the schedule of the BMI. The cultural and age adaptation includes simplifying the techniques and localizing its instructions. For example, since this was the first time the middle school students were exposed to meditation, we included more reminders in the guided meditation to help students reduce mind wandering. We also used analogies to facilitate students’ understanding of what "consciousness" means (e.g., comparing consciousness to the sky). Mindfulness-based stress reduction techniques can improve emotional regulation and relieve anxiety (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Studies have shown that mindfulness training has a significant negative predictive effect on test anxiety levels, and mindfulness training can significantly reduce test anxiety levels in junior high school students (Tian, 2019).

  3. (3)

    Positive Suggestion This section was formed by adapting the suggestions in the 5-min bilingual guided meditation (Cai, 2017; Li, et al., 2019) and the brief guided meditation in the classroom (Ma, 2020). Positive suggestions are used to improve students’ self-efficacy. Cai (2017) hypothesized that positive cues could realize the potential of individuals through cognitive changes. At the same time, a study on the effect of meditation training on self-efficacy found that meditation training significantly improved subjects’ self-efficacy, mental health and quality of life (Goldstein et al., 2018). For this section, we took into account the busy and intense academic life of Chinese junior high school students. To help students quickly immerse themselves in the classroom learning, we set up a step-by-step guideline of positive suggestions. This guidance begins with cognition (“Your attention will be more concentrated”), then emotion (“You will find learning a joyful thing to do”), then expectation (“You can reach your potential”), and finally to self-confidence (“You will be more confident”).

In terms of review of the appropriateness of the intervention by stakeholders, the recording of the BMI has been auditioned by professional instructors, three psychology teachers in the junior high school, and ten middle school students. They believe that the BMI has no inappropriate suggestions and can help students relax. The BMI materials are available upon request from the corresponding authors.

Procedure

The study was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board of the University of the first author. A flow chart illustrating the experimental procedure is shown in Fig. 2. First, all participants completed the consent form, the pre-test of MAAS, GSES and TAS, and the demographic information questionnaire. The consent form only stated the general purpose of the study: a mental health project for adolescents. To prevent social expectation effect, the participants were blind to what the researchers were examining.

Furthermore, students in the experimental group (BMI group) were informed about the importance of basic knowledge and continuous practice related to meditation. These participants were informed that they were about to undergo a BMI. The BMI lasted eight weeks (5 days/week, 6–7 min per day) and was played by grade leader Monday through Friday afternoon before class. The eight-week intervention consisted of four themes: learning to experience breathing meditation, conscious physical relaxation, awareness of the current emotional state, and review and consolidation of meditation techniques. The duration of each intervention theme was two weeks.

At 12:10 PM every day before the start of afternoon self-study, the experimental group received 6–7 min of BMI, while the active control group received meditation relaxation music. Aside from the pre-test (first week), participants in both groups also took the mid-term test (fifth week), post-test (ninth week), and a one month follow-up test. During the mid-test and post-test, the students’ satisfaction and acceptance of the meditation training program were collected. After excluding cases with missing data, 184 participants were included in the analysis (see Fig. 2).

Implementation Fidelity

To ensure implementation fidelity of the intervention program, we took the following measures: First, (a) Adopting an intervention model implemented by homeroom teachers and supervised by researchers. Because homeroom teachers are well connected with their students, such an arrangement can reduce attrition of participants. (b) Providing students with incentives, e.g., a brief mental health handbook, for completing our periodical evaluations of the BMI. (c) Discussing homeroom teachers’ questions and concerns during the implementation process timely to ensure a smooth progress of the intervention. (d) Communicating with the principal of the school before the project started to ensure that the intervention could be carried out at the agreed times. The research team promised to provide feedback developed from the study to the school to enhance collaboration at the school level.

Statistical Analyses

SPSS 22.0 was used for the repeated measurement analysis of variance (ANOVA). To test the effect of BMI, mindfulness, self-efficacy, and test anxiety scores from the four assessment times were analyzed by a 2 × 4 repeated measures ANOVA, in which the inter group variable was group (BMI, active control) and the intra group variable was time (T1: pre-, T2: mid-, T3: post-, and T4: follow-up). The process plug-in was used to explore the mediating mechanisms influencing the intervention effect.

For participants who dropped out during the intervention process (specific reasons shown in Fig. 2), we initially addressed the missing data by using regression estimation and then compared the analysis result with that without the data of those who dropped out. The comparison revealed that the outcomes obtained with the estimated values of the missing data were consistent with those obtained by directly excluding the data from these participants. Therefore, to enhance the reliability of our study findings, we present the results of the data analysis after excluding incomplete data.

Results

Descriptive statistics of the outcome measures are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Mindfulness, self-efficacy, and test anxiety scores at four time points under different intervention conditions
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Effects of BMI

Test Anxiety

The results of 2 × 4 mixed ANOVA based on the test anxiety scores showed that there was no effect of time [F (3, 546) = 0.43, p = 0.43, η2p = 0.01], but the effect of group [F (1, 182) = 6.21, p < 0.05, η2p = 0.03] and the interaction between time and group [F (3, 546) = 4.72, p < 0.01, η2p = 0.03] were both significant.

The simple effect of group showed that there was no significant difference between the BMI group and the control group at T1 and T3 [ps > 0.30], but at T2 and T4, the scores of the BMI group were significantly lower than that of the control group [ps < 0.05]. The simple effect of time showed that for the control group, there was no significant change between T1, T2 and T3 compared with each other [ps > 0.16], but the score of T4 was slightly higher than that of T1, with a marginal significance [p = 0.05]. In addition, there was no difference between T2, T3, and T4 compared with each other [ps > 0.11]. In the BMI group, the test anxiety scores of T2 and T4 were significantly lower than that of T1 [ps < 0.01]. There was no significant change between T2 and T3 [p = 0.84], but the score of T4 was significantly lower than T2 [ps < 0.05]. Besides, there was no difference between T3 and T4 [p = 0.17]. The trajectories of the test anxiety score across time for the BMI and the control groups are shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Trajectories of test anxiety score for BMI and control groups. Note T1 represents the pre-test (first week), T2 represents the mid-term test (fifth week), T3 represents the post-test (ninth week), and T4 represents the follow-up test (one month later)

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Mindfulness

To examine the effect of BMI, mindfulness scores from the four assessment times were analyzed by a 2 × 4 repeated measures ANOVA, in which the inter group variable was group (BMI, active control) and the intra group variable was time (T1: pre-, T2: mid-, T3: post-, and T4: follow-up). Results showed that the effect of time [F (3, 546) = 8.01, p < 0.01, η2p = 0.04] and group [F (1, 182) = 17.89, p < 0.01, η2p = 0.09] and the interaction between time and group [F (3, 546) = 14.09, p < 0.01, η2p = 0.07] were all significant.

The simple effect of group showed that there was no significant difference between the BMI group and the control group at Time 1 (T1) [p = 0.80], but at Time 2 (T2), Time 3 (T3) and Time 4 (T4), the mindfulness score of the BMI group were significantly higher than that of the control group [ps < 0.01]. The simple effect of time showed that for the control group, there was no significant change between any two time points [ps > 0.14]. However, in the BMI group, the mindfulness scores of T2, T3 and T4 were significantly higher than that of T1 [ps < 0.01], and there was no difference between T2, T3, and T4 compared with each other [ps > 0.17]. The trajectories of the mindfulness score across time for the BMI and the control groups are shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4
figure 4

Trajectories of mindfulness score for BMI and control groups. Note T1 represents the pre-test (first week), T2 represents the mid-term test (fifth week), T3 represents the post-test (ninth week), and T4 represents the follow-up test (one month later)

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Self-Efficacy

The results of 2 × 4 repeated measures ANOVA showed that the effect of time [F (3, 546) = 8.38, p < 0.01, η2p = 0.04] and group [F (1, 182) = 17.38, p < 0.01, η2p = 0.09] and the interaction between time and group [F (3, 546) = 14.80, p < 0.01, η2p = 0.09] were all significant on the self-efficacy scores.

The simple effect of group showed that there was no significant difference between the BMI group and the control group at T1 [p = 0.86], but at T2, T3 and T4, the score of the BMI group were significantly higher than that of the control group [ps < 0.01]. The simple effect of time showed that, for the control group, the scores of T2 and T3 were slightly lower than that of T1, with a marginal significance [0.06 ≤ ps ≤ 0.08], but there was no significant change between T4 and T1 [p = 0.83]. There was no difference between T2, T3, and T4 compared with each other [ps > 0.12]. In the BMI group, the self-efficacy scores of T2, T3, and T4 were significantly higher than that of T1 [ps < 0.01], and the scores of T3 and T4 were also significantly higher than T2 [ps < 0.01]. However, there was no difference between T3 and T4 [p = 1.00]. The trajectories of the self-efficacy score across time for the BMI and the control groups are shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5
figure 5

Trajectory of self-efficacy score for BMI and control groups. Note T1 represents the pre-test (first week), T2 represents the mid-term test (fifth week), T3 represents the post-test (ninth week), and T4 represents the follow-up test (one month later)

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Correlation Analyses

To ascertain if the changes in anxiety were mediated by changes in mindfulness and self-efficacy, we first examined the correlations among these variables (Table 2). After finding significant associations [p < 0.01] among the four variables (changes in test anxiety score from T1 to T4, changes in self-efficacy score from T1 to T3, changes in mindfulness score from T1 to T2, and group), we conducted a mediation analysis using the process plug-in to examine whether changes in mindfulness and self-efficacy mediated the effects of the intervention on test anxiety, which will be described in Section “Testing the Mediating Model of BMI.”

Table 2 Correlation of each variable (N = 184)
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Testing the Mediating Model of BMI

After establishing the associations among the four variables (group, D(2–1)_MAAS, D(3–1)_GSES, and D(4–1)_TAS), we analyzed the mediation effects of mindfulness and self-efficacy by using Model 6 of the process plug-in (Hayes, 2013). The analysis resulted in a chain mediation model with the intervention condition as the independent variable, the D(4–1)_TAS as the dependent variable, and D(2–1)_MAAS and D(3–1)_GSES as the mediating variables. The path coefficients are shown in Table 3 and Fig. 6.

Table 3 Bootstrap analysis of mediation effects
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Fig. 6
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The chain mediation model of Mindfulness and Self-efficacy on the effect of BMI on test anxiety

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In this model, the indirect effect of the pathway with D(2–1)_MAAS as a mediator was -1.24 [LLCI = − 2.31, ULCI = − 0.42], the indirect effect of the path with D(3–1)_GSES as the mediator was − 1.60 [LLCI = − 3.02, ULCI = − 0.68], and the indirect effect of pathways with D(2–1)_MAAS and D(3–1)_GSES as mediators was − 0.40 [LLCI = − 0.99, ULCI = − 0.11]. All indirect effects combined − 3.24 [LLCI = − 5.20, ULCI = − 1.76]. The chain mediation model was established, and the mediation effect value accounted for 68.35% of the intervention effects.

To further, verify the establishment of the chain mediation model, we selected the measurement data at T2 to observe whether mindfulness preceded meaningful changes in self-efficacy and test anxiety (score changes exceeding 0). This study defined meaningful changes in mindfulness and self-efficacy as increases in scores and meaningful changes in test anxiety as decreases in scores. The verification steps are as follows:

First, the difference between the score of T2 and T1 for mindfulness (D(2–1)_MAAS), self-efficacy (D(2–1)_GSES), and test anxiety (D(2–1)_TAS) was calculated. Subsequently, cases with D(2–1)_MAAS and D(2–1)_GSES greater than 0 were coded as 1 (meaningful change), and cases less than or equal to 0 were coded as 0 (meaningless change); Cases with D(2–1)_TAS less than 0 were coded as 1 (meaningful change), and cases greater than or equal to 0 were coded as 0 (meaningless change). Finally, binomial tests were performed on different variables separately to check whether the meaningful change was significantly higher than expected by chance, i.e., 50%.

According to Table 4, at T2, only the meaningful changes in mindfulness were higher than the chance expectations, and the meaningful changes in self-efficacy and test anxiety were not significant. Based on this finding, it can be concluded that meaningful changes in mindfulness preceded self-efficacy and test anxiety, therefore the data support the chain mediation model.

Table 4 Changes in mindfulness, self-efficacy and test anxiety at T2
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Discussion

This study developed a Brief Meditation Intervention (BMI) program specifically tailored to address test anxiety in middle school students in the Chinese cultural context. The intervention spanned eight consecutive weeks, with daily sessions lasting 6–7 min. The BMI innovatively modified previous interventions in terms of both duration and content. It also extended the cultural sensitivity research on existing interventions in the international community. In addition, the study explored the mechanisms of the effectiveness of this intervention program.

Effects of Brief Meditation Intervention (BMI)

First and foremost, the BMI effectively reduced individuals’ scores of test anxiety, with its effects lasting at least until the follow-up assessment. This outcome aligns with the findings of most studies examining the impact of meditation training on students’ test anxiety (Carsley & Heath, 2020; Kaplan-Rakowski et al., 2021; Maier et al., 2020). Based on four measurement points, the intervention group exhibited a significant decrease in test anxiety scores compared to the control group. At the end of the fourth week (T2), a significant difference was observed between the control group and the intervention group. Possible reasons for this difference may be that the 4-week training enabled the BMI group students to acquire skills for alleviating test anxiety. Existing research, such as Kemper (2017), has demonstrated the immediate impact of brief meditation training on test anxiety. Therefore, the measurement at this point allowed for a noticeable distinction in scores between the BMI and the control groups. However, by the eighth week measurement (T3), we observed no significant differences between the two groups, which may be attributed to real-world factors. The intervention coincided with the Biology and Geography Joint Exam (a crucial test for high school admissions) for the students in the sixth week. This may have heightened the stress levels for both groups. The effect of the BMI at the time may not be strong enough to show a difference in test anxiety scores. Yet, in the follow-up assessment one month later, the intervention effects of the BMI became evident. The intervention group exhibited significantly lower test anxiety levels than the control group, demonstrating the long-term impact of BMI on test anxiety.

This study indicates that BMI can enhance individuals’ scores of mindfulness, which is a meaningful result given the ongoing debate on whether meditation training can directly influence mindfulness. This result aligns with previous research findings that that meditation training significantly elevates individuals’ mindfulness (Wang, 2020; Wang & Luo, 2017; Zeidan et al., 2015). However, some studies has yielded less favorable results. For instance, Chinese scholars (Wang & Zhou, 2016) found no significant difference in mindfulness levels between the meditation and control groups when exploring the effects of 10 min of daily meditation training over two weeks. Similarly, Prätzlich et al. (2016) observed similar results in a three-day, 20-min daily training. The potential reason for these discrepancies lies in the lack of consistency in meditation training intervention methods and procedures. Due to variations in duration, frequency, guided content, and other factors, meditation training produces varied effects. For example, two pseudo-meditation groups were established in Prätzlich et al.’s (2016) study, where they were only informed about the purpose of meditation but not provided with the practice method. However, participants in the pseudo-meditation groups were reminded to stay focused on the present moment, aligning with the core concept of mindfulness. Consequently, no significant differences were observed between the pseudo-meditation group and the meditation group.

This study also reveals a steady improvement of individuals’ self-efficacy levels through BMI. The study results support our research hypothesis that BMI helps self-efficacy and similar conclusions from previous research by Özcan and Isildar (2021), Taylor et al. (2022), and Vidic and Cherup (2019). Two potential factors in this study may have contributed to the enhancement of self-efficacy: (1) The positive suggestions in the guidance of the BMI. Based on previous studies (Cai, 2017), the BMI guidance includes positive suggestions that are designed to enhance self-efficacy and tailored to the learning context of junior high school students. (2) The influence of mindfulness on self-efficacy. The BMI training continually emphasizes focusing on present sensations, being aware of internal experiences without judgment, and enhancing an individual’s mindfulness. Thus, when individuals entertain thoughts of low self-efficacy, mindfulness may help interrupt them promptly, laying the groundwork for a positive self-assessment. (For further discussion, see section “The chain mediating role of mindfulness and self-efficacy.”

Improving Cultural Sensitivity of the BMI Program

This study of BMI on test anxiety of Chinese junior high school students has extended the work on cultural sensitivity of existing interventions in the international community. In addition to outcome data, the current study generated a culturally adapted BMI program for Chinese junior high school students, applying the ecological validity framework (Bernal et al., 1995). Implementation wise, this intervention study has provided an example of how a brief anxiety reduction program can be incorporated in a school routine seamlessly through cultural and contextual adaptation.

As part of the school curriculum, the BMI improves the ecological validity of the intervention, and strengthens the sustainability of the intervention.

The Chain Mediating Role of Mindfulness and Self-Efficacy

Earlier research has suggested that mindfulness and self-efficacy may function separately as mediators in improving test anxiety levels (Goldstein et al., 2018). Through longitudinal data analysis across four measurements, this study discovered that mindfulness and self-efficacy act as chain mediators between Brief Meditation Intervention (BMI) and the reduction of test anxiety. This finding reveals a pathway of BMI → increased mindfulness → increased self-efficacy → reduced test anxiety. Our study further validates that within the context of BMI, mindfulness may induce changes in self-efficacy. Additionally, recent studies have demonstrated a correlation between mindfulness and self-efficacy, which may support our findings regarding the potential impact of mindfulness on self-efficacy (Bayır & Aylaz, 2021; Hanley et al., 2015).

The Metacognitive Model of Mindfulness may help explain these results (Jankowski & Holas, 2014). In this model mindfulness can be conceptualized in terms of metacognition, and many of its effects may be understood better if seen through lenses of this broader concept. The higher (meta) level cognition monitors and controls cognitive processing on the lower (object) level (Flavell, 1979; Nelson & Narens, 1994). In this model, researchers conceptualize mindfulness as the highest level of metacognition. Therefore mindfulness, as it refers to the top level of the hierarchical structure of cognition, may monitor and control not only basic consciousness but also other (lower) levels of metacognition.

Hence, the effective intervention mechanism of brief meditation training for test anxiety stems from its ability to impact individuals’ higher-order metacognition, specifically mindfulness. Subsequently, mindfulness monitors and regulates individuals’ self-assessment of their capabilities, consequently influencing self-efficacy. This pathway facilitates individuals with low self-efficacy to disengage from negative evaluations and regain accurate self-assessments. Concurrently, this process aids in alleviating individuals’ test anxiety. We speculate that this top-down progressive effective mechanism may also contribute to the stable maintenance of intervention effects by BMI.

Limitations of the Study

Several limitations of the current study should be noted. First, this study sample consisted of students from one junior high school. In the future, more research is needed to cross-validate the findings from the current study with BMI, using randomized control trials or large longitudinal cohort designs in other junior high schools. In addition, we observed that students entered the meditation state very slowly in the early stage of the intervention process, possibly due to lack of understanding of what meditation could bring. Future BMI should include instruction to help students understand the purpose of the intervention, which may enable students to enter the meditation state faster to optimize the effect of the intervention.

Implications for Practice

Despite these limitations, findings from this study provide practical implications for school-based mental health interventions, as well as future directions for research on mindfulness-based interventions for test anxiety. Given, the long-term effects of the BMI on students’ test anxiety, the positive feedback from the students and teachers, and the feasibility of implementing the BMI, we the BMI can serve as a helpful resource for social emotional enhancement in schools. Beyond addressing test anxiety, the BMI can be used for helping students relax the mind and body in daily school activities, enhancing mindfulness, and self-efficacy. Since, these activities require minimal resources and no special training, teachers can incorporate in their classrooms. Ultimately, for individual students, it can serve as a useful skill for managing test anxiety. Outside of the classroom, students can also apply these skills when facing anxiety in various circumstances in life.

Conclusion

The current study reveals that BMI is an effective approach to reduce test anxiety among Chinese junior high school students, with improvement of mindfulness and self-efficacy appearing to play a chain of mediating roles in the intervention. The findings from the study shed light on the pathways of BMI to test anxiety reduction. In addition, the culturally tailored BMI program provides culturally sensitive intervention materials for future interventions for junior high school students of similar cultural and school contexts. The procedures along with the products of the current study expand the scope of culturally sensitive BMI in practice and research.