Abstract
This paper investigates the gendered impact of paid work, and transition into paid work, on the mental health of adolescents and young adults (AYAs) in resource-poor settings in India. Data on 16,292 AYAs aged 10–19 years at the baseline were drawn from a longitudinal survey conducted in 2015–16 in India who are followed-up again in 2018–19. The mean estimates convey that Mental Ill-health Score (MIS) for AYAs who participated in paid work was significantly higher than those who had never participated, especially for females. The absolute female-male gap in MIS also increased from 1.16 in 2015–16 to 1.78 in 2018–19. Findings based on multiple robust econometric models reveal that the increase in MIS as a result of transitioning from not working to paid work or remaining in paid work was more significant for females than males net of other confounders. The gendered effect of paid work on MIS was sensitive to school attendance and marital status. Instrument variable regression estimates strengthen our argument that transition to paid work in adolescents and school-going ages cause higher psychological issues net of other predictors. In conclusion, we advance that participation in paid work during adolescence negatively impacts mental health and is gender-sensitive, with a more pronounced effect for school-going and married female AYAs.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The data for this study comes from the project ‘Understanding the lives of adolescents and young adults in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh (UDAYA)’ of the Population Council with financial support from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the David and Lucile Packard Foundation. The data is available on request from the UDAYA team https://www.projectudaya.in/.
References
Aarons, G. A., Monn, A. R., Leslie, L. K., Garland, A. F., Lugo, L., Hough, R. L., & Brown, S. A. (2008). Association between mental and physical health problems in high-risk adolescents: A longitudinal study. Journal of Adolescent Health, 43(3), 260–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.01.013
Afifi, M. (2007). Gender differences in mental health. Singapore Medical Journal, 48(5), 385–391.
Aggarwal, P., Raval, V. V., Chari, U., Raman, V., Kadnur Sreenivas, K., Krishnamurthy, S., & Visweswariah, A. M. (2021). Clinicians’ perspectives on diagnostic markers for depression among adolescents in India: An embedded mixed-methods study. Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry, 45(2), 163–192. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11013-020-09680-8
Agnafors, S., Barmark, M., & Sydsjö, G. (2021). Mental health and academic performance: A study on selection and causation effects from childhood to early adulthood. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 56(5), 857–866. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-020-01934-5
Annerbäck, E. M., Sahlqvist, L., Svedin, C. G., Wingren, G., & Gustafsson, P. A. (2012). Child physical abuse and concurrence of other types of child abuse in Sweden—Associations with health and risk behaviors. Child Abuse & Neglect, 36(7–8), 585–595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2012.05.006
Arslan, G., Allen, K. A., & Tanhan, A. (2021). School bullying, mental health, and wellbeing in adolescents: Mediating impact of positive psychological orientations. Child Indicators Research, 14(3), 1007–1026. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-020-09780-2
Beattie, T. S., Prakash, R., Mazzuca, A., Kelly, L., Javalkar, P., Raghavendra, T., Ramanaik, S., Collumbien, M., Moses, S., Heise, L., Isac, S., & Watts, C. (2019). Prevalence and correlates of psychological distress among 13–14-year-old adolescent girls in North Karnataka, South India: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 19(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-6355-z
Belfer, M. L. (2008). Child and adolescent mental disorders: The magnitude of the problem across the globe. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(3), 226–236. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01855.x
Ben-Arieh, A. (2005). Where are the children? Children’s role in measuring and monitoring their well-being. Social Indicators Research, 74(3), 573–596. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-004-4645-6
Borga, L. G. (2019). Children’s own time use and its effect on skill formation. The Journal of Development Studies, 55(5), 876–893. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2018.1499893
Burgess, R. A., Jeffery, M., Odero, S. A., Rose-Clarke, K., & Devakumar, D. (2022). Overlooked and unaddressed: A narrative review of mental health consequences of child marriages. PLOS Global Public Health, 2(1), e0000131. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgph.0000131
Census of India. (2011). Population projections for India and states 2011 – 2036. National Commission on Population, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, New Delhi. https://main.mohfw.gov.in/sites/default/files/Population%20Projection%20Report%202011-2036%20-%20upload_compressed_0.pdf
Chauhan, S. K., & Dhar, M. (2020). Prevalence and predictors of mental health disorder among the adolescent living in the slums of Lucknow, India: A cross-sectional study. Community Mental Health Journal, 56(3), 383–392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-019-00452-2
Chen, H., Cohen, P., Kasen, S., Johnson, J. G., Berenson, K., & Gordon, K. (2006). Impact of adolescent mental disorders and physical illnesses on quality of life 17 years later. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 160(1), 93–99. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.160.1.93
Chowdhury, K. (2020). The intersection of caste and child labour in Bihar. Economic and Political Weekly, 55(4). https://www.epw.in/engage/article/intersection-caste-and-child-labour-bihar
Das, S., & Mukherjee, D. (2011). Measuring deprivation due to child work and child labour: A study for Indian children. Child Indicators Research, 4(3), 453–466. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-010-9097-8
Desai, S. B., Dubey, A., Joshi, B. L., Sen, M., Shariff, A., & Vanneman, R. (2010). Human development in India: Challenges for a Society in Transition. Oxford University.
Eaton, J., DeSilva, M., Regan, M., Lamichhane, J., & Thornicroft, G. (2014). There is no wealth without mental health. The Lancet. Psychiatry, 1(4), 252–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(14)70277-9
Edmunds, C., & Alcaraz, M. (2021). Childhood material hardship and adolescent mental health. Youth & Society, 53(7), 1231–1254. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X211001896
Erskine, H. E., Moffitt, T. E., Copeland, W. E., Costello, E. J., Ferrari, A. J., Patton, G., Degenhardt, L., Vos, T., Whiteford, H. A., & Scott, J. G. (2015). A heavy burden on young minds: The global burden of mental and substance use disorders in children and youth. Psychological Medicine, 45(7), 1551–1563. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291714002888
Fazel, M., & Kohrt, B. A. (2019). Prevention versus intervention in school mental health. The Lancet Psychiatry, 6(12), 969–971. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(19)30440-7
Gamlin, J., Camacho, A. Z., Ong, M., & Hesketh, T. (2015). Is domestic work a worst form of child labour? The findings of a six-country study of the psychosocial effects of child domestic work. Children’s Geographies, 13(2), 212–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/14733285.2013.829660
Gautham, M. S., Gururaj, G., Varghese, M., Benegal, V., Rao, G. N., Kokane, A., Chavan, B. S., Dalal, P. K., Ram, D., Pathak, K., Singh, R. K. L., Singh, L. K., Sharma, P., Saha, P. K., Ramasubramanian, C., Mehta, R. Y., Shibukumar, T. M., NMHS Collaborators group. (2020). The National Mental Health Survey of India (2016): Prevalence, socio-demographic correlates and treatment gap of mental morbidity. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 66(4), 361–372. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020907941
Gnanaselvam, N. A., & Joseph, B. (2018). Depression and behavioral problems among adolescent girls and young women employees of the textile industry in India. Workplace Health & Safety, 66(1), 24–33. https://doi.org/10.1177/2165079917716187
Gundi, M., Santhya, K. G., Haberland, N., Zavier, A. J. F., & Rampal, S. (2020a). The increasing toll of mental health issues among adolescents and youth in Bihar. Policy Brief. New Delhi: Population Council. https://www.projectudaya.in/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Mental-Health-Brief_Bihar.pdf
Gundi, M., Santhya, K. G., Haberland, N., Zavier, A. J. F., & Rampal, S. (2020b). The increasing toll of mental health issues among adolescents and youth in Uttar Pradesh. Policy Brief. New Delhi: Population Council. https://www.projectudaya.in/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Mental-Health-Brief_U.P.pdf
Hughes, K., Lowey, H., Quigg, Z., & Bellis, M. A. (2016). Relationships between adverse childhood experiences and adult mental well-being: Results from an English national household survey. BMC Public Health, 16(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-2906-3
Hughes, K., Bellis, M. A., Hardcastle, K. A., Sethi, D., Butchart, A., Mikton, C., Jones, L., & Dunne, M. P. (2017). The effect of multiple adverse childhood experiences on health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Public Health, 2(8), e356–e366. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(17)30118-4
Ibrahim, A., Abdalla, S. M., Jafer, M., Abdelgadir, J., & De Vries, N. (2019). Child labor and health: A systematic literature review of the impacts of child labor on child’s health in low-and middle-income countries. Journal of Public Health., 41(1), 18–26. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdy018
International Labour Office and United Nations Children’s Fund [ILO & UNICEF] (2021). Child Labour: Global estimates 2020, trends and the road forward, ILO and UNICEF, New York, 2021. License: CC BY 4.0. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---ipec/documents/publication/wcms_797515.pdf
International Labour Office [ILO]. (2017). Global estimates of child labour: results and trends, 2012–2016. Geneva: International Labour Office. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_575499.pdf
John, M. E. (2021). Child marriage in an international frame: A feminist review from India (1st ed.). Routledge.
John, N. A., Kapungu, C., Sebany, M., & Tadesse, S. (2022). Do gender-based pathways influence mental health? Examining the linkages between early child marriage, intimate partner violence, and psychological well-being among young Ethiopian women (18–24 years old). Youth & Society, 0044118X221079375. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X221079375
Kapungu, C., Petroni, S., Allen, N. B., Brumana, L., Collins, P. Y., De Silva, M., Dua, T., Haj-Ahmad, J., Leichner, A., Patton, G., Pringle, B., Omigbodun, O., Silver, K. L., Estrin, G. L., Singh, S., Zaka, N., & Zeck, W. (2018). Gendered influences on adolescent mental health in low-income and middle-income countries: Recommendations from an expert convening. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 2(2), 85–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(17)30152-9
Kaufman, T. M., Lee, H. Y., Benner, A. D., & Yeager, D. S. (2020). How school contexts shape the relations among adolescents’ beliefs, peer victimization, and depressive symptoms. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 30(3), 769–786. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12558
Khan, S. R., & Lyon, S. (2015). Measuring children's work in South Asia: perspectives from national household surveys. International Labour Office. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---sro-new_delhi/documents/publication/wcms_359371.pdf
Kieling, C., Baker-Henningham, H., Belfer, M., Conti, G., Ertem, I., Omigbodun, O., Rohde, L. A., Srinath, S., Ulkuer, & Rahman, A. (2011). Child and adolescent mental health worldwide: evidence for action. The Lancet, 378(9801), 1515–1525. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60827-1
Kiely, K. M., Leach, L. S., Olesen, S. C., & Butterworth, P. (2015). How financial hardship is associated with the onset of mental health problems over time. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 50(6), 909–918. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-015-1027-0
Kim, J. E., Min, W. H., Lee, B. J., & Ku, I. H. (2015). A panel study to examine the impact of multidimensional poverty on Korean adolescents’ health. Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work and Development, 25(3), 145–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/02185385.2015.1027952
Kosher, H., Jiang, X., Ben-Arieh, A., & Huebner, E. S. (2014). Advances in children’s rights and children’s well-being measurement: Implications for school psychologists. School Psychology Quarterly, 29(1), 7–20. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000051
Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. (2001). The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure. Journal of General Internal Medicine., 16(9), 606–613. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x
Kumar, G. S., Jain, A., & Hegde, S. (2012). Prevalence of depression and its associated factors using Beck Depression Inventory among students of a medical college in Karnataka. Indian Journal of Psychiatry., 54(3), 223. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5545.102412
Labour Resources Department. (2017). State action plan for elimination of child labour and prohibition and regulation of adolescent labour,2017. Government of Bihar, India. https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/Annex-8.pdf
Lam, C. B., Greene, K. M., & McHale, S. M. (2016). Housework time from middle childhood through adolescence: Links to parental work hours and youth adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 52(12), 2071. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000223
Lane, C., Brundage, C. L., & Kreinin, T. (2017). Why we must invest in early adolescence: Early intervention, lasting impact. Journal of Adolescent Health., 61(4), S10-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.07.011
Leiva, L., Torres-Cortés, B., & Antivilo-Bruna, A. (2022). Adverse childhood experiences and mental health: When well-being matters. Child Indicators Research, 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-021-09904-2
Long, E., Zucca, C., & Sweeting, H. (2021). School climate, peer relationships, and adolescent mental health: A social ecological perspective. Youth & Society, 53(8), 1400–1415. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X20970232
Mehlhausen-Hassoen, D., & Winstok, Z. (2019). The association between family violence in childhood and mental health in adulthood as mediated by the experience of childhood. Child Indicators Research, 12(5), 1697–1716. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-018-9605-9
Mendes de Oliveira, C., Santos Almeida, C. R., & HofheinzGiacomoni, C. (2022). School-based positive psychology interventions that promote well-being in children: A systematic review. Child Indicators Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-022-09935-3
Moreau, C., Blum, R., Mmari, K., Hunersen, K., Mafuta, E., Lulebi, A., Wilopo, S., Stones, W., Shervington, D., Michielsen, K., Lou, C., Borges, A. L., & Maddaleno, M. (2021). Gender and health in very young adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 69(1), S3–S4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.04.012
Mortimer, J. T., Harley, C., & Staff, J. (2002). The quality of work and youth mental health. Work and Occupations, 29(2), 166–197. https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888402029002003
Murray, U. (2003). Good practices: Gender mainstreaming in actions against child labour. Geneva, International Labour Organization. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@dgreports/@gender/documents/publication/wcms_084177.pdf
Ornek, O. K., & Esin, M. N. (2018). Psychological health problems among adolescent workers and associated factors in Istanbul. Turkey. Safety and Health at Work, 9(1), 101–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shaw.2017.06.004
Orri, M., Ahun, M. N., Naicker, S., Besharati, S., & Richter, L. M. (2022). Childhood factors associated with suicidal ideation among South African youth: A 28-year longitudinal study of the Birth to Twenty Plus cohort. PLoS medicine, 19(3), e1003946. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003946
Pandey, R., Gupta, S., Upadhyay, A., Gupta, R. P., Shukla, M., Mishra, R. C., Arya, Y. K., Singh, T., Niraula, S., Lau, J. Y. F., & Kumari, V. (2020). Childhood maltreatment and its mental health consequences among Indian adolescents with a history of child work. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 54(5), 496–508. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867420909524
Pandia, V., Noviandhari, A., Amelia, I., Hidayat, G. H., Fadlyana, E., & Dhamayanti, M. (2021). Association of mental health problems and socio-demographic factors among adolescents in Indonesia. Global Pediatric Health, 8. https://doi.org/10.1177/2333794X211042223
Patton, G. C., Sawyer, S. M., Santelli, J. S., Ross, D. A., Afifi, R., Allen, N. B., Arora, M., Azzopardi, P., Baldwin, W., Bonell, C., Kakuma, R., Kennedy, E., Mahon, J., McGovern, T., Mokdad, A. H., Patel, V., Petroni, S., Reavley, N. … Viner, R. M. (2016). Our future: a Lancet commission on adolescent health and wellbeing. The Lancet, 387(10036), 2423–2478. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00579-1
Pells, K. (2011). Poverty and gender inequalities: Evidence from young lives. Young Lives Policy Paper 3. https://www.younglives.org.uk/sites/www.younglives.org.uk/files/YL_PP3_Poverty-and-Gender-Inequalities.pdf
Petersen, A. C., Compas, B. E., Brooks-Gunn, J., Stemmler, M., Ey, S., & Grant, K. E. (1993). Depression in adolescence. American Psychologist, 48(2), 155. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.48.2.155
Pillai, A., Patel, V., Cardozo, P., Goodman, R., Weiss, H. A., & Andrew, G. (2008). Non-traditional lifestyles and prevalence of mental disorders in adolescents in Goa, India. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 192(1), 45–51. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.106.034223
Raj, A. (2010). When the mother is a child: The impact of child marriage on the health and human rights of girls. Archives of Disease in Childhood., 95(11), 931–935. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2009.178707
Raj, A., Salazar, M., Jackson, E. C., Wyss, N., McClendon, K. A., Khanna, A., Belayneh, Y., & McDougal, L. (2019). Students and brides: A qualitative analysis of the relationship between girls’ education and early marriage in Ethiopia and India. BMC Public Health, 19(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-6340-6
Ram, U., Strohschein, L., & Gaur, K. (2014). Gender socialization: Differences between male and female youth in India and associations with mental health. International Journal of Population Research, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/357145
Repetti, R. L., Taylor, S. E., & Seeman, T. E. (2002). Risky families: Family social environments and the mental and physical health of offspring. Psychological Bulletin, 128(2), 330. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.2.330
Richardson, T., Elliott, P., Roberts, R., & Jansen, M. (2017). A longitudinal study of financial difficulties and mental health in a national sample of British undergraduate students. Community Mental Health Journal, 53(3), 344–352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-016-0052-0
Russell, M. A., & Odgers, C. L. (2020). Adolescents’ subjective social status predicts day-to-day mental health and future substance use. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 30, 532–544. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12496
Sagar, R., Dandona, R., Gururaj, G., Dhaliwal, R. S., Singh, A., Ferrari, A., Dua, T., Ganguli, A., Varghese, M., Chakma, J. K., & Kumar, G. A. (2020). The burden of mental disorders across the states of India: The Global Burden of Disease Study 1990–2017. The Lancet Psychiatry, 7(2), 148–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(19)30475-4
Santhya, K. G., Acharya, R., Pandey, N., Singh, S. K., Rampal, S., Zavier, A. J., & Gupta, A. K. (2017a). Understanding the lives of adolescents and young adults (UDAYA) in Bihar, India. Population Council, New Delhi. https://www.popcouncil.org/uploads/pdfs/2017aPGY_UDAYA-BiharReport.pdf
Santhya, K. G., Acharya, R., Pandey, N., Singh, S. K., Rampal, S., Zavier, A. J., & Gupta, A. K. (2017b). Understanding the lives of adolescents and young adults (UDAYA) in Uttar Pradesh, India. Population Council, New Delhi. https://www.projectudaya.in/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/UP-Report-pdf.pdf
Singh, R., Galab, P. S., Reddy, P. P., & Benny, L. (2018). Reaching the last child: Evidence from Young Lives India. University of Oxford.
Smith, N. R., Marshall, L., Albakri, M., Smuk, M., Hagell, A., & Stansfeld, S. (2021). Adolescent mental health difficulties and educational attainment: findings from the UK household longitudinal study. BMJ Open, 11(7), e046792. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-046792
Sunitha, S., & Gururaj, G. (2014). Health behaviours & problems among young people in India: Cause for concern & call for action. The Indian Journal of Medical Research, 140(2), 185.
Trinh, T. A. (2020). Mental health impacts of child labour: Evidence from Vietnam and India. The Journal of Development Studies, 56(12), 2251–2265. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2020.1746280
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. (2022). World Population Prospects 2022. Online edition. UN.
United Nations Children’s Fund. (2022). Child Labour: In the world’s poorest countries, slightly more than 1 in 5 children are engaged in child labour. UNICEF Data: Monitoring the situation of children and women. Available from: https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-protection/child-labour/#
Vaalavuo, M., & Bakkum, B. (2021). Mental health problems at a critical juncture: Exit from social assistance among young Finns. Journal of Social Policy, 50(4), 764–787. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047279420000501
Vikram, K. (2021). Early marriage and health among women at midlife: Evidence from India. Journal of Marriage and Family, 83(5), 1480–1501. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12793
Vuolo, M., Mortimer, J. T., & Staff, J. (2014). Adolescent precursors of pathways from school to work. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 24(1), 145–162. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12038
World Health Organization [WHO] (2021). Adolescent mental health: Key facts. Geneva, World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-mental-health
Woodhead, M. (2004). Psychosocial impacts of child work: A framework for research, monitoring, and intervention. The International Journal of Children’s Rights, 12, 321–327. https://doi.org/10.1163/1571818043603607
Wooldridge, J. M. (2016). Advanced panel data methods. In J. M. Wooldridge (Ed.), Introductory econometrics: A modern approach (6th ed., pp. 492–496). Cengage Learning.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Population Association of America for giving us the opportunity to present the earlier version of this paper at the Annual Meeting 2022. We have immensely benefited from the comments of the Session Chair and other participants. We would also like to thank the Australian Health Economics Society for giving us the opportunity to present this paper at the doctoral workshop and conference 2022, especially the Session Chair Prof. Dipanwita Sarkar and other participants for their insightful suggestions. The authors would also like to thank the Population Council Office in India for permitting us to use the data from the UDAYA project. We specifically thank Bidhubhusan Mahapatra and Rajib Acharya from the Population Council for clarifications on the sampling design and sampling weights of the survey.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Conception and design of the study: Dibyasree Ganguly, Srinivas Goli, Oriel Sullivan
Acquisition of data: Dibyasree Ganguly
Analysis and interpretation of data: Dibyasree Ganguly
Drafting the manuscript: Dibyasree Ganguly
Revising the manuscript critically for important intellectual content: Dibyasree Ganguly, Srinivas Goli, Oriel Sullivan
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Statement
The authors declare that all the procedures used in the data collection process comply with the ethical standards of the relevant national and institutional committees on human experimentation and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2008 (for more details see Santhya et al., 2017a, 2017b).
Competing Interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Ganguly, D., Goli, S. & Sullivan, O. Gender, Paid Work, and Mental Health of Adolescents and Young Adults in Resource-Poor Settings of India. Child Ind Res 16, 1137–1170 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-023-10009-1
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-023-10009-1