Abstract
Mindfulness has been consistently linked with greater life satisfaction, but it is unclear what accounts for this association. Potentially, mindfulness may promote greater self-esteem and reduce stress, which may cultivate positive attitudes toward one's life. Across a series of three studies, we investigated the extent to which self-esteem and perceived stress uniquely accounted for the relation between mindfulness and life satisfaction. In Studies 1 and 2 (Ns = 278 and 260, respectively), both self-esteem and perceived stress statistically accounted for the positive relation between mindfulness and life satisfaction in U.S. college student samples. In Study 3 (N = 419), the model was replicated in a more diverse, non-college student sample. These findings provide support for the generalizability of the robust associations among mindfulness, life satisfaction, self-esteem, and perceived stress. Furthermore, self-esteem and perceived stress may represent two potential pathways through which mindfulness enhances evaluations of one’s life.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon request.
Code Availability
Code available upon request.
Notes
Primary variables did not significantly differ by condition (ps ≥ .40).
Without covariates, the total effect of MAAS scores on life satisfaction was significant (b = 0.99, SE = 0.35, t(417) = 2.79, p = .006).
Without covariates, the direct effect of FFMQ-SF scores on life satisfaction was significant (b = -0.11, SE = 0.04, t(415) = -2.86, p = .004).
Without covariates, the indirect effect through perceived stress was non-significant, 1.04 (SE = 0.59; 95% CI [-0.12, 2.16]).
Without covariates, the total effect of life satisfaction on MAAS scores was significant (b = 0.02, SE = 0.01, t(417) = 2.79, p = .006).
Without covariates, the indirect effect through self-esteem was non-significant, 0.01 (SE = 0.004; 95% CI [-0.0002, 0.01]).
Without covariates, the direct effect of life satisfaction on FFMQ-SF scores was significant (b = -0.18, SE = 0.06, t(415) = -2.86, p = .004).
Without covariates, the direct effect of life satisfaction on CAMS-R scores was significant (b = 0.02, SE = 0.003, t(415) = 5.61, p < .001).
References
Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Hopkins, J., Krietemeyer, J., & Toney, L. (2006). Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment, 13(1), 27–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191105283504
Batink, T., Peeters, F., Geschwind, N., van Os, J., & Wichers, M. (2013). How does MBCT for depression work? Studying cognitive and affective mediation pathways. PLoS ONE, 8(8), e72778. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0072778
Bergin, A. J., & Pakenham, K. I. (2016). The stress-buffering role of mindfulness in the relationship between perceived stress and psychological adjustment. Mindfulness, 7(4), 928–939. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0532-x
Bohlmeijer, E., Ten Klooster, P. M., Fledderus, M., Veehof, M., & Baer, R. (2011). Psychometric properties of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire in depressed adults and development of a short form. Assessment, 18, 308–320. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191111408231
Bränström, R., Kvillemo, P., Brandberg, Y., & Moskowitz, J. T. (2010). Self-report mindfulness as a mediator of psychological well-being in a stress reduction intervention for cancer patients—A randomized study. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 39(2), 151–161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12160-010-9168-6
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822–848. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822
Buhrmester, M., Kwang, T., & Gosling, S. D. (2011). Amazon’s mechanical Turk: A new source of inexpensive, yet high-quality, data? Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 6(1), 3–5. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610393980
Burger, K., & Samuel, R. (2017). The role of perceived stress and self-efficacy in young people’s life satisfaction: A longitudinal study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46(1), 78–90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0608-x
Cain, M. K., Zhang, Z., & Bergeman, C. S. (2018). Time and other considerations in mediation design. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 78(6), 952–972. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164417743003
Charoensukmongkol, P., & Suthatorn, P. (2018). Salespeople’s trait mindfulness and emotional exhaustion: The mediating roles of optimism, resilience, and self-efficacy. International Journal of Services, Economics and Management, 9(2), 125–142.
Clemente, F., & Sauer, W. J. (1976). Life satisfaction in the United States. Social Forces, 54(3), 621–631. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/54.3.621
Chung, J. M., Robins, R. W., Trzesniewski, K. H., Noftle, E. E., Roberts, B. W., & Widaman, K. F. (2014). Continuity and change in self-esteem during emerging adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(3), 469–483. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035135
Çivitci, N., & Çivitci, A. (2009). Self-esteem as mediator and moderator of the relationship between loneliness and life satisfaction in adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 47(8), 954–958. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.07.022
Coffman, D. L., & Gilligan, T. D. (2002). Social support, stress, and self-efficacy: Effects on students’ satisfaction. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 4(1), 53–66. https://doi.org/10.2190/BV7X-F87X-2MXL-2B3L
Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 385–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404
Cohen, S., & Williamson, G. (1988). Perceived stress in a probability sample of the United States. In S. Spacapan & S. Oskamp (Eds.), The social psychology of health: Claremont Symposium on Applied Social Psychology (pp. 31–67). Sage.
Creswell, J. D., & Lindsay, E. K. (2014). How does mindfulness training affect health? A mindfulness stress buffering account. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(6), 401–407. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414547415
Diener, E., & Diener, M. (2009). Cross-cultural correlates of life satisfaction and self-esteem. In Culture and well-being (pp. 71–91). Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2352-0_4
Diener, E. D., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
Edwards, M., Adams, E. M., Waldo, M., Hadfield, O. D., & Biegel, G. M. (2014). Effects of a mindfulness group on Latino adolescent students: Examining levels of perceived stress, mindfulness, self-compassion, and psychological symptoms. The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 39(2), 145–163. https://doi.org/10.1080/01933922.2014.891683
Feldman, G., Hayes, A., Kumar, S., Greeson, J., & Laurenceau, J. P. (2007). Mindfulness and emotion regulation: The development and initial validation of the Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale-Revised (CAMS-R). Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 29(3), 177–190. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-006-9035-8
Ford, C. G., & Shook, N. J. (2019). Negative cognitive bias and perceived stress: Independent mediators of the relation between mindfulness and emotional distress. Mindfulness, 10(1), 100–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0955-7
Fredrickson, B. L., Cohn, M. A., Coffey, K. A., Pek, J., & Finkel, S. M. (2008). Open hearts build lives: Positive emotions, induced through loving-kindness meditation, build consequential personal resources. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(5), 1045. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013262
Garland, E. L., Gaylord, S. A., Boettiger, C. A., & Howard, M. O. (2010). Mindfulness training modifies cognitive, affective, and physiological mechanisms implicated in alcohol dependence: Results of a randomized controlled pilot trial. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 42(2), 177–192. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2010.10400690
Greeson, J. M. (2009). Mindfulness research update: 2008. Complementary Health Practice Review, 14(1), 10–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/1533210108329862
Grossman, P., Niemann, L., Schmidt, S., & Walach, H. (2004). Mindfulness-based stress reduction and health benefits: A meta-analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 57(1), 35–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3999(03)00573-7
Harnett, P. H., Whittingham, K., Puhakka, E., Hodges, J., Spry, C., & Dob, R. (2010). The short-term impact of a brief group-based mindfulness therapy program on depression and life satisfaction. Mindfulness, 1(3), 183–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-010-0024-3
Hayes, A. F., & Rockwood, N. J. (2017). Regression-based statistical mediation and moderation analysis in clinical research: Observations, recommendations, and implementation. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 98, 39–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2016.11.001
Hölzel, B. K., Carmody, J., Vangel, M., Congleton, C., Yerramsetti, S. M., Gard, T., & Lazar, S. W. (2011). Mindfulness practice leads to increases in regional brain gray matter density. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 191(1), 36–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.08.006
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: How to cope with stress, pain and illness using mindfulness meditation. Piatkus. https://doi.org/10.1002/shi.88
Kong, F., Wang, X., & Zhao, J. (2014). Dispositional mindfulness and life satisfaction: The role of core self-evaluations. Personality and Individual Differences, 56, 165–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.09.002
Kuppens, P., Realo, A., & Diener, E. (2008). The role of positive and negative emotions in life satisfaction judgment across nations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(1), 66. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.95.1.66
Kuyken, W., Watkins, E., Holden, E., White, K., Taylor, R. S., Byford, S., ... & Dalgleish, T. (2010). How does mindfulness-based cognitive therapy work?. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48(11), 1105-1112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2010.08.003
Lakey, C. E., Hirsch, J. K., Nelson, L. A., & Nsamenang, S. A. (2014). Effects of contingent self-esteem on depressive symptoms and suicidal behavior. Death Studies, 38(9), 563–570. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2013.809035
Lai, J. H. W., Bond, M. H., & Hui, N. H. H. (2007). The role of social axioms in predicting life satisfaction: A longitudinal study in Hong Kong. Journal of Happiness Studies, 8(4), 517–535. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-006-9029-y
Leary, M. R. (1999). Making sense of self-esteem. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 8(1), 32–35. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00008
Li, J., Fang, M., Wang, W., Sun, G., & Cheng, Z. (2018). The influence of grit on life satisfaction: Self-esteem as a mediator. Psychologica Belgica, 58(1), 51. https://doi.org/10.5334/pb.400
Marcionetti, J., & Rossier, J. (2019). A longitudinal study of relations among adolescents’ self-esteem, general self-efficacy, career adaptability, and life satisfaction. Journal of Career Development, 0894845319861691. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845319861691
Moksnes, U. K., Moljord, I. E., Espnes, G. A., & Byrne, D. G. (2010). The association between stress and emotional states in adolescents: The role of gender and self-esteem. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(5), 430–435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.04.012
Pepping, C. A., O’Donovan, A., & Davis, P. J. (2013). The positive effects of mindfulness on self-esteem. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 8(5), 376–386. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2013.807353
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36(4), 717–731. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03206553
Quaglia, J. T., Braun, S. E., Freeman, S. P., McDaniel, M. A., & Brown, K. W. (2016). Meta-analytic evidence for effects of mindfulness training on dimensions of self-reported dispositional mindfulness. Psychological Assessment, 28(7), 803–818. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000268
Randal, C., Pratt, D., & Bucci, S. (2015). Mindfulness and self-esteem: A systematic review. Mindfulness, 6(6), 1366–1378. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0407-6
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton University Press.
Sala, M., Rochefort, C., Lui, P. P., & Baldwin, A. S. (2020). Trait mindfulness and health behaviours: A meta-analysis. Health Psychology Review, 14(3), 345–393. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2019.1650290
Schutte, N. S., & Malouff, J. M. (2011). Emotional intelligence mediates the relationship between mindfulness and subjective well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(7), 1116–1119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.01.037
Spector, P. E. (2019). Do not cross me: Optimizing the use of cross-sectional designs. Journal of Business and Psychology, 34(2), 125–137. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-018-09613-8
Stolarski, M., Vowinckel, J., Jankowski, K. S., & Zajenkowski, M. (2016). Mind the balance, be contented: Balanced time perspective mediates the relationship between mindfulness and life satisfaction. Personality and Individual Differences, 93, 27–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.09.039
Strohmaier, S., Jones, F. W., & Cane, J. E. (2021). Effects of length of mindfulness practice on mindfulness, depression, anxiety, and stress: A randomized controlled experiment. Mindfulness, 12(1), 198–214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-020-01512-5
Tan, J., Lo, P., Ge, N., & Chu, C. (2016). Self-esteem mediates the relationship between mindfulness and social anxiety among Chinese undergraduate students. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 44(8), 1297–1304. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2016.44.8.1297
Tomlinson, E. R., Yousaf, O., Vittersø, A. D., & Jones, L. (2018). Dispositional mindfulness and psychological health: A systematic review. Mindfulness, 9(1), 23–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-017-0762-6
Thompson, B. L., & Waltz, J. A. (2008). Mindfulness, self-esteem, and unconditional self-acceptance. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 26(2), 119–126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-007-0059-0
Ursin, H., & Eriksen, H. R. (2004). The cognitive activation theory of stress. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29(5), 567–592. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4530(03)00091-X
Utsey, S. O., Ponterotto, J. G., Reynolds, A. L., & Cancelli, A. A. (2000). Racial discrimination, coping, life satisfaction, and self-esteem among African Americans. Journal of Counseling & Development, 78(1), 72–80. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2000.tb02562.x
Van Aalderen, J. R., Donders, A. R. T., Giommi, F., Spinhoven, P., Barendregt, H. P., & Speckens, A. E. M. (2012). The efficacy of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy in recurrent depressed patients with and without a current depressive episode: A randomized controlled trial. Psychological Medicine, 42(5), 989–1001. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291711002054
Vøllestad, J., Sivertsen, B., & Nielsen, G. H. (2011). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for patients with anxiety disorders: Evaluation in a randomized controlled trial. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49(4), 281–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2011.01.007
Wang, K., & Kong, F. (2020). Linking trait mindfulness to life satisfaction in adolescents: The mediating role of resilience and self-esteem. Child Indicators Research, 13(1), 321–335. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-019-09698-4
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors made substantial contributions to the conception, design, analysis, or interpretation of the work. All authors approved the final manuscript.
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of Interest/Competing Interests
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.
Ethics Approval
This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of West Virginia University (Protocol # 1708737752, Protocol # 1610304883, Protocol #1808236318).
Consent to Participate
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Consent to Publish
Not applicable.
Additional information
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lee, J., Weiss, A., Ford, C.G. et al. The indirect effect of trait mindfulness on life satisfaction through self-esteem and perceived stress. Curr Psychol 42, 13333–13345 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02586-7
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02586-7