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Opportunity Costs: Underemployment and Mental Health Inequities Between Immigrant and Canadian-Born Labour Force Participants: A Cross-Sectional Study

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Abstract

To examine the association of underemployment (operationalised as unemployment or overqualification) to fair/poor self-rated mental health (SRMH) in labour force participants, between a. immigrant vs. Canadian-born and b. recent (< 10 years in Canada; arrived 1993–2003) vs. long-term immigrant (≥ 10 years in Canada) labour force participants. Data from the Canadian Community Health Survey (CCHS) 2.1 (2003) was used to explore associations within the context of a 1993 national immigration policy shift prioritising admission of skilled immigrants. Logistic regression analyses were performed to estimate odds ratios associating underemployment with fair/poor SRMH for the full study sample then stratified by a. immigrant status and b. length of time in Canada. Data were weighted to reflect the CCHS 2.1 sample design, adjustments for nonresponse, and post-stratification. The study sample included 57,308 labour force participants aged 18–64. Following a listwise deletion of participants with missing values for independent variables, dependent variables, and/or covariates, the resulting sample was 54,064 (94% of the eligible sample). Underemployment was positively associated with fair/poor SRMH for labour force participants. Overqualification was positively associated with fair/poor SRMH for immigrants (AOR 1.63; 95% CI 1.16–2.27), but not for Canadian-born labour force participants (AOR 1.03; 95% CI 0.90–1.20). Unemployment (AOR 3.41; 95% CI 1.79–6.48) and overqualification (AOR 1.52; 95% CI 1.04–2.21) only had significant positive associations with fair/poor SRMH for long-term immigrants. The magnitude of association of overqualification was greater for recent (AOR 2.04) than long-term immigrants and this may have practical importance. The findings suggest the need for tailored interventions to prevent underemployment and fair/poor SRMH for immigrant vs. Canadian-born labour force participants. A whole of government approach is needed to reduce the underemployment of immigrants and its mental health impact.

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Availability of data and material

Data may be obtained from a third party (Statistics Canada) and are not publicly available.

Code availability

Custom SAS code is available upon reasonable request.

Notes

  1. Social exclusion is an expression of unequal relations of power among groups in society, which then determine unequal access to economic, social, political, and cultural resources (Galabuzi, 2009). Social inclusion has to be discussed in relation to social exclusion as the two concepts are dialectical (Labonte, 2004)”.

  2. The NOC is updated in partnership with Statistics Canada according to 5-year census cycles. The NOC structure was not modified in 2006 (http://noc.esdc.gc.ca/English/noc/welcome.aspx?ver=06).

  3. Based on the 2007–2017 recommendations of the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination for the Canadian government to replace “visible minority” with a more precise, accurate, and non-discriminatory term (United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, 2007, 2012, 2017), this paper uses Ontario Human Rights Commission terminology that “describes people as “racialised person” or “racialised group” instead of the more outdated and inaccurate terms “racial minority”, “visible minority”, “person of colour”, or “non-White””. (Ontario Human Rights Commission, 2005).

  4. CCHS 2.1 documentation notes, “The bootstrap re-sampling method used in the CCHS involves the selection of simple random samples known as replicates, and the calculation of the variation between the estimates from replicate to replicate”. (Statistics Canada, 2004).

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Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge funding provided to Dr. Mawani by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research and the Government of Ontario and funding and mentorship provided by Statistics Canada, Institute for Work and Health, and the University of Toronto.

Funding

Dr. Farah N. Mawani is currently funded by a Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) Health System Impact Fellowship. During the process of designing and conducting this study, she was funded by: CIHR Institute of Gender and Health Canada Graduate Scholarship Doctoral Research Award; CIHR Research in Addictions and Mental Health Policy and Services (RAMHPS) Fellowship; Statistics Canada Tom Symons Research Fellowship; Graduate Ontario Student Opportunity Trust Funds (OSOTF) Institute for Work and Health Graduate Fellowship; CP Shah Ontario Graduate Scholarship in Science and Technology; and University of Toronto Open Fellowship.

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  1. MAP Centre for Urban Health Solutions, St. Michael’s Hospital, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

    Farah N. Mawani & Patricia O’Campo

  2. Faculty of Environmental and Urban Change, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada

    Farah N. Mawani

  3. Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

    Patricia O’Campo & Peter Smith

  4. Institute for Work and Health, Toronto, ON, Canada

    Peter Smith

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Guarantors: Dr. Farah N. Mawani and Dr. Patricia O’Campo; Idea: Farah N. Mawani; Literature search: Farah N. Mawani and Patricia O’Campo; Data analysis: Farah N. Mawani and Peter Smith; Writing: All.

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Correspondence to Farah N. Mawani.

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Mawani, F.N., O’Campo, P. & Smith, P. Opportunity Costs: Underemployment and Mental Health Inequities Between Immigrant and Canadian-Born Labour Force Participants: A Cross-Sectional Study. Int. Migration & Integration 23, 1443–1470 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-021-00896-0

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